For a long time, man has been interested in what lies beyond the horizon - new territories or the ends of the earth. Centuries passed, civilization accumulated knowledge. The time has come when scientists who have never been to distant lands knew a lot about them. Sources helped with this. geographic information.

This article will tell you about what it is, as well as about their varieties.

General concepts

As you might guess, this is the name of all of which a person can get information of interest to him. What sources of geographic information does grade 5 consider (in a secondary school)? Let's list them:

• All geographic Maps, atlases, as well as various topographic plans, including military ones.
• Various geographical descriptions of a particular area.
• Handbooks, encyclopedic articles, results and reports of various expeditions.
• Aerial photographs and space
• and GPS/GLONASS.

Here are the sources of geographic information that grade 5 knows in an average secondary school. We will try to consider the characteristics of some of them in a little more detail.

Modern technologies

In recent years, more and more sources are being converted from paper to digital. And this is not surprising. Almost all 5 sources of geographic information that we just talked about can be found today in digital form. Even professional scientists in recent years prefer to work with the "digit".

It is much more convenient to work with the same GIS system than with a pile of books. Now let's discuss some sources of geographic information in more detail.

Cards

A map is a schematic generalized representation of the surface of a piece of land, the entire planet or celestial bodies. It is built on the principle of scaling, that is, mathematical methods are used for this. Depending on the scale, all maps are usually divided into three large groups:

• Large scale.
• Medium scale.
• Small scale.

If we talk about the first category, then these documents may have a ratio of 1:200,000 or larger. This includes almost all topographic plans. Small-scale maps are considered to be all maps whose ratio is less than 1:1,000,000. A typical geographic atlas includes either small-scale or medium-scale plans that are best suited for studying a particular area.

Sorting map information

You should know that long before creating a map, experts make a strict selection of what will be shown on it. This process is called as follows: cartographic generalization. Naturally, the most stringent selection exists for small-scale maps, since they need to accommodate the maximum volume useful information with a minimum footprint. In the generalization itself, an extremely important role is played by the direct purpose of the card, as well as the wishes of its customer.

Terrain plans

This is the name of the drawings of the area, which are carried out on a large scale (1: 5000 or more), and are drawn using special symbols. In this way, they resemble a school geographical atlas. The construction of such plans is carried out on the basis of visual, instrumental measurements, aerial photography, or a combined method.

Since the plans indicate relatively small areas of the earth's surface, when creating them, the curvature of the planet can be neglected. It should be clearly understood that these sources of geographic information that we have just described are fundamentally different from each other.

The main differences between plans and maps

• In a centimeter of the plan, more than five real kilometers on the ground are rarely laid. They are much more detailed than maps, in one millimeter of which hundreds of kilometers of the earth's surface can be laid.
• All objects on the ground in the plans are depicted as detailed as possible. In principle, all more or less significant areas are marked on the average drawing. So, on the topographic plans of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (and the USSR, of course) even trees and small streams can be displayed. It is impossible to fit all this information on the maps. Actually, this is why the generalization, which we talked about above, is being carried out. Even the exact outlines of the continents on many maps cannot be displayed, and therefore they are often plotted with significant distortions. In addition, the above-described additional literature on geography uses off-scale conventions.
• We emphasize once again that when constructing the plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is neglected. Maps, especially on a small scale, take it into account without fail.
• There is never a degree grid on the plans. At the same time, there are parallels and meridians on each of them.
• The plan is always simple in terms of orientation. The top of the document is north, the bottom, respectively, is south. On the maps, the direction is determined by parallels.

Ways of depicting objects on plans and maps

Conventional signs in this case are generally accepted options, in which the characteristics of the objects depicted on the map or plan are encoded. With their help, you can display both something concrete (a mountain, for example), and something completely abstract, conditional (population density in a city, village, etc.). Of course, all of them make life much easier for a person who knows the basics of cartography and can read these drawings.

How long does the map remain valid?

Almost all geographers and geologists ask this question at least once in a while. The specific answer to it depends on the purpose, scale, and author of the plan. So, medieval researchers often drew maps literally “on their knees”, so there is no longer any need to talk about their accuracy. But the maps of the General Staff, despite the time, are still striking in their accuracy.

Do not forget that the maps are quite stable, while the plans of the Amazon and the Nile can be safely thrown away fifty years after they were published. These rivers change the relief of the Earth's surface so effectively and quickly that older documents are only useful in a historical perspective.

Geographic descriptions, discoveries

All sources of geographic information discussed above are somehow dry and uninteresting. It is much more exciting to read a description of some region, area or even the mainland, written by the person who discovered it all!

Jokes aside, but descriptions and reports on geographical (geodesic, biological) studies can sometimes provide much more information than the most detailed topographical plan of the area. Moreover, the latter does not display some unpleasant features of a particular area (malaria, which occurs in some central regions of Africa at every step, for example).

The list of references in geography that students are given at school (for example, Nikolina V.V. Geography, lesson developments; Samkova V.A. We study the forest; Forest Encyclopedia: in 2 volumes / chief ed. G. I. Vorobyov ), just the same, and formed thanks to the work of researchers who at one time entered all this information on the map, being in the thick of things.

Brief information about the discovery of Africa

Let's talk a little about the history of the discovery of the Black Continent. Of course, the word "discovery" is not entirely correct here: here is Australia - yes, I had to suffer with it. In the case of Africa, the coastal regions were well explored, where they caught black slaves and bought ivory from Arab traders, but almost no one knew what was happening in the depths of the continent.

Everything changed in the 19th century, when the legendary arrived in Africa. It was he who had the honor of discovering the origins of the Nile and the magnificent Lake Victoria. Few people know, but research Central Africa at one time, the Russian scientist V.V. Junker (in 1876-1886) studied.

For the indigenous population of the mainland, all this ended sadly: the main sources of geographical information (that is, maps), the data for which all these brave scientists collected with such difficulty and constant danger to life, began to be actively used by slave traders ...

So, with maps and plans, we are actually done. Geographic atlases are in the same category. And what is the role of modern sources of geographic information? To answer this question, let's consider the principle of sharing old paper maps and a navigator, which is now actively used even by professional geographers and geologists.

GPS/GLONASS + maps

It should be noted that this method is excellent for determining the accuracy of maps, atlases and topographic plans. In addition, this technique satisfies the needs of historians, as they can see for themselves how much the area has changed, which is described in historical chronicles by contemporaries of certain events. However, literature on geography often contains plans for the area that have not been updated since the beginning of the last century.

To use such an accurate, but rather laborious and somewhat extravagant method, you will have to bind three times (three different maps) to the same piece of terrain:

• First, find a more or less modern map or topographic plan.
• It is advisable to have a fresh aerospace image of the area under study with a topographic reference to the coordinate system.
• Finally, you need the card whose information you are going to check.

The meaning of this operation is to enter into the memory of the navigator all three of these drawings of the area. Modern models of such devices have a fairly powerful processor and an impressive amount of RAM, so you can switch between cards instantly.

Determination of the route

Route planning is best done using a modern map or topographic plan. We do not recommend using old documents for this. It is quite possible that there is now a passable area on the site of the swamp, but you will no longer be able to walk along the edge of the once rare young forest, since the geography of the area has changed dramatically. A map is good, but in most cases such documents are not very accurate.

Why are aerial and satellite photographs preferred over maps?

But why are paper drawings so inferior to the products of modern technology? This is for the following two reasons:

• Firstly, the relevance of space photography or aerial photography in most cases is much higher. When else will cartographers be able to carry out the next generalization of new data and release up-to-date terrain plans?
• In the pictures you can literally in real time determine the characteristics of a particular area. On a map or even a topographical plan, the tree species in the forest will be displayed only schematically and only in a general order. Simply put, it is quite possible to stumble upon a dense spruce forest in the middle of a birch forest, and it is much easier to get lost in a dense coniferous forest.

After choosing a route and checking new pictures, it is recommended to contact old map. Why such difficulties? Imagine that you are a field biologist. You need to determine how much the forest has grown, what new tree species have appeared, how many types of forest have changed over the years. Ideal for all these tasks is the simple overlay of a new card on its old counterpart. Thus, everything becomes visible as clearly as possible.

Here are the sources used by geography. The map is perhaps the most important of them, but one should not forget that over the past decades science and technology have made a huge step forward, and therefore it is foolish not to take advantage of all modern achievements.

Conclusion

So you have learned which sources of geographic information are currently the most relevant. Oddly enough, but we still use all the same plans and maps that were invented before our era. Of course, adjusted for their modern look.

Earth. The whole world. Countries of the world.

The following significant events have taken place around the world since the beginning of the 20th century:

• Two devastating world wars;
• the Great Depression of the 1930s;
• Huge colonial empires collapsed;
• There is rapid progress in science and technology;
• Cold War between Western Alliance and Warsaw Pact countries;
• The sharp rise in living standards in North America, Europe and Japan;
• Global environmental problems have emerged, including deforestation, lack of energy and water, loss of biodiversity and air pollution;
• The AIDS epidemic has begun;

The world population continues to increase dramatically: from 1 billion in 1820 to 2 billion in 1930, 3 billion in 1960, 4 billion in 1974, 5 billion in 1987, 6 billion in 1999 to 7 billion in 2012.

In the 21st century, the continued exponential growth of science and technology inspires new hopes (such as advances in medicine) and creates fears (such as the development of even deadlier weapons for warfare).

Geographic overview of the world:

The Earth's surface is made up of approximately 70.9% water and 29.1% land. The water surface is conditionally divided into large groups, called oceans, in descending order of area: the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean (a new term that has appeared in world geography) and the Arctic Ocean.
The land is divided into large parts, which are called continents.
Depending on the classification, the number of continents can vary from five to seven. In Russia, it is customary to separate parts of the world and continents.

In the most common world classification, seven continents are distinguished (from largest to smallest):

Asia,
Africa,
North America,
South America,
Antarctica,
Europe,
Australia.

Asia and Europe are sometimes combined into one continent, which is called Eurasia, in which case six continents are obtained.
In addition, North America and South America are sometimes also combined into one continent - North and South America, resulting in a total of six or five continents, if the term Eurasia is also used.

North America usually includes the island of Greenland, the islands of the Caribbean, and ends in the south with the Panama Canal.

Eastern Europe is usually bounded on the east by the Ural Mountains and the Ural River, on the southeast by the Caspian Sea, on the south by the Caucasus, the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.

Countries: Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey are located simultaneously in Europe and Asia, but in any case, most of their territory is in Asia.

These countries are considered part of both continents. Armenia and Cyprus, which lie entirely in Western Asia, are geopolitically European countries.

Asia includes all the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Pacific Islands are often combined with Australia and are called Australia and Oceania.

Africa is bounded to the northeast by the Suez Canal, but for geopolitical purposes, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula is often considered part of Africa.

Although the above classifications are the most common, this division is based on the cultural sphere, and not on physiographic calculations.

A group of articles on geography, sociology, demography and economics of the countries of the world:

No. p.p.	Name of information
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

There is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government.

The names Russian Federation and Russia are equivalent (Constitution of the Russian Federation, Article 1).

The head of state is the President of the Russian Federation, elected for four years by the citizens of the Russian Federation on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage.

State power in the Russian Federation is exercised on the basis of division into legislative, executive and judicial.

The legislative body is the Federal Assembly - the parliament of the Russian Federation, consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.

Executive power in the Russian Federation is exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation, which consists of the Prime Minister, his deputies and federal ministers.

Moscow is the capital of the Russian Federation

Justice in the Russian Federation is carried out only by the court.

Russia in the form of government is a federation, which includes 83 equal subjects: 21 republics, 9 territories, 46 regions, 2 cities of federal significance, 1 autonomous region, 4 autonomous districts.

The Russian Federation - Russia - is the world's largest state in terms of area, occupying 17,098.2 thousand km2, which is approximately 1/8 of the land (not counting).

The total population of Russia at the beginning of 2008 was 142.7 million people, of which the urban population accounted for 73%, the rural population - 27%. The average population density is 8.3 people. per 1 km2.

The capital of the state is the city of Moscow (10.4 million people, 2008)

The official language of the state is Russian.

The monetary unit is the ruble.

Russia is located in the northeastern part of the largest continent -, occupying about 1/3 of its territory, including the eastern part of Europe and northern Asia.

The European part of Russia includes the entire territory lying west of the Urals (about 23% of the total area of ​​the country); the share of the Asian part of Russia accounts for over 75% of the area. However, almost 80% of Russia's population is concentrated in its European part (including the entire Urals).

Stella "Asia"

The main part of the territory of Russia is located between 70 ° N. sh. and 50° s. sh.; about 20% of the territory lies beyond the Arctic Circle.

The total length of the borders of the Russian Federation is 60,932.8 km, of which 38,807.5 km are sea borders and 22,125.3 km are land borders. The land border of the Russian Federation has the greatest length with, Mongolia and. Maritime borders exist with Japan and.

The extreme northern point of the country - 81 ° 51 "N - is located on Cape Fligeli (Rudolf Island as part of the archipelago), and on the mainland - 77 ° 43" N. sh. - on Cape Chelyuskin (peninsula). The extreme southern point - 41 ° 10 "N - is located 3 kilometers east of Mount Ragdan Main Caucasian ridge. The extreme eastern point of the country - 169 ° 02 "W. - is located on Ratmanov Island in the Bering Strait, and on the mainland -169 ° 40" W. e. - on Cape Dezhnev (Chukotka Peninsula). The extreme western point -19 ° 38 "E - located in Kaliningrad region on the border with Poland. The length of the territory of Russia from west to east is 9 thousand km, and from north to south - 4 thousand km.

There are 11 within Russia.

The modern borders of the Russian Federation were formed over a long historical period. Some of them are inherited from Russian Empire(the entire border with, the border with China and for most of their length). The current maritime border between Russia and the United States was also formed in the century before last, when the tsarist government sold Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to the United States in 1867. The border with Mongolia was finally agreed after its separation from China already in Soviet times, although in fact it was formed earlier.

A significant part of the current Russian borders was established as a result of the Second World War.

New ones, comprising about 12 thousand km, arose as a result of the collapse of the USSR in 1991. The new independent states retained the borders of the former Soviet republics. Russian diplomacy has done a great job of formalizing the new borders in accordance with the norms of international law. In most cases, the experts managed to resolve controversial issues and avoid their politicization.

Russian borders are extremely diverse in morphology. Some of them pass along natural boundaries - large water bodies, mountain ranges and watersheds. In total, the length of the river borders of the country is 7.3 thousand km, lake - about 500 km. In the Caucasus, the border between Russia with and mainly runs along the Main, to the border with Kazakhstan partly passes along the Tigiretsky, Koksuysky, Katunsky ridges.

The degree of development of the border strip depends on the morphological properties of the border and, in particular, on the degree of its coincidence with natural boundaries, which, in turn, largely determines the prerequisites for cross-border cooperation. A high degree of economic and demographic development is characterized by border areas Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, Amur Region and Jewish Autonomous Region, the south of which continues the main zone of settlement of Russia and is distinguished by more favorable natural conditions. The population density is relatively high in the border areas of the Orenburg region, as well as in such old-developed areas as in the Belgorod, Bryansk and Pskov regions, and even in some mountainous regions - in the Altai Republic and the Karachay-Cherkess Republic. On the contrary, the steppe regions of a number of regions bordering Kazakhstan are sparsely populated, some mountainous areas in the North Caucasus.

On the very border or very close to it are located such big cities, like Sochi (331.0 thousand inhabitants), Orsk (246.1 thousand inhabitants), Blagoveshchensk (214.3 thousand inhabitants), Novotroitsk (110.6 thousand inhabitants) and others.

The geographical and geopolitical position of Russia is closely connected with its territorial structure and predetermines many features of settlement and economy. It is distinguished by transcontinentality (the country's territory covers part of Europe and Asia) and interoceanic extension (Russia immediately reaches three oceans - the basin, the Pacific and the Arctic oceans.

Most of the sea coast falls on the Northern Seas, which are extremely difficult for navigation and remote from inhabited areas. 8-10% of Russian citizens live directly by the sea - three times less than the average on the planet. However, Russia began to actively restore its merchant fleet, which occupies 13th place in the world in terms of tonnage.

5–6 regions go to the most accessible marginal seas of the Arctic, the Atlantic and the northern and Far Eastern regions each occupy 10–11% of the country's territory with 2–3% of the population and gross domestic product, and the western ones, respectively, 1.6%, 11, 6% and 9.4%. They are the main ports of Russia.

Russia is the northernmost state. It accounts for half of the northern regions of the world with an area of ​​11 million km2, or 64% of the country's territory. The population density of the North is only 1 person. per km2, but in total about 10 million people live there. Russia has the most northern city world with a population of over 1 million. () and the northernmost city in the world with a population of over 100 thousand (Norilsk). In general, the northern geographic location means large costs for heating and lighting, the need to build durable and protected from adverse natural factors industrial premises. Any construction becomes more expensive permafrost (often in combination with), spreading over 60% of the territory of Russia.

Natural and climatic conditions are one of the reasons for the country's geographical asymmetry: East End countries are more mountainous, the climate there is more severe: St. Petersburg and lie at the same latitude, but the frosts on the shores of the Baltic are 4.5 months, and on the Sea of ​​Okhotsk - 7, the average January temperatures are -8 ° and -20 ° С, respectively.

The share of the regions of the European part of Russia, including the Urals, in the entire territory of Russia is 1/4. Four-fifths of the country's inhabitants live in these regions, and the vast majority of the economic potential is concentrated here.

One of the consequences of the boundlessness of Russian spaces is the sparseness of the network of cities. The average distance between them in the inhabited zone of the European part of Russia is 45–75 km, beyond - about 250 km. Therefore, it is so important for Russia to have a highly developed, cheap and efficient transport that ensures high mobility of the population. In rarefied space, the use of the concept of the settlement framework, based on the predominant development of cities located along transport axes - polyhighways, gives a special effect. This saves transport costs and travel time between cities.

Due to the sparseness of the population and geographical asymmetry, the deep inland geography of production in Russia, the transport intensity of the economy is high, i.e., the ratio of freight turnover of all types of mainline transport to the gross domestic product. At the beginning of this decade, it was 2.5–3 tkm per dollar of production, while in China, Australia, and Canada it was 0.7–1; in the USA - 0.55; in Europe, - and at all 0.2–0.4 tkm. High energy intensity is functionally related to this indicator. The average distance of transportation by rail is 1330 km, by air- more than 4500.

At the same time, the vast territory of Russia means an abundance and diversity natural resources. Mineral resources make up the main article of Russian exports, providing up to 70% of foreign exchange earnings. In Russia, 20 thousand deposits of almost all types of minerals have been discovered, 37% have been put into operation. An important geopolitical role belongs to fuel and raw materials. Russia's share in the world's proven oil reserves is almost 10%, a third (the first place in the world is 2.5 times more than in the second place), coal - 12%. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of production and.
High-latitude regions are especially rich in natural resources. About a third of its entire area belongs to the Russian sector of the Arctic. The Arctic is 90% of the recoverable hydrocarbon resources of the entire continental shelf of Russia, 80% of the all-Russian explored gas reserves, deposits of many other minerals - apatite, nickel and copper, tungsten, platinoids, tin, gold, manganese, chromite and titanium ores. In the Arctic zone there are companies that belong to the world giants - Gazprom, Norilsk, oil companies. It produces about 11% of Russia's national income and 22% of exports (with 1% of the population). Of strategic importance is the Northern Sea Route - a transcontinental highway integrating the economic complex of the Far North and linking the Far Eastern and Western regions of Russia.

The collapse of the USSR led to the formation of an enclave - the Kaliningrad region, now surrounded by the EU countries - Poland and. Communication with him, maintaining the competitiveness of the region's economy is an important geopolitical problem for Russia.

Russia maintains international relations with many in various fields (politics, economics, culture, healthcare, sports, etc.), as well as with various international organizations.

After the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States - (end of 1991) Russia's position has changed dramatically. Now it is firmly gaining positions of equal partnership.

The priority direction of Russia's foreign policy is the development of relations with the CIS countries. Russia continues to cooperate with organizations in which it is the legal successor of the USSR: the UN (United Nations), OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe), CE (Council of Europe), EU (), APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Community), ASEAN (Association of States South-East Asia), OAU (Organization of African Unity), etc.

Russia considers international economic organizations as one of the forms of cooperation between states. Russia joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF), became a member of the World Bank Group formed by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), participates in the activities of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and cooperates with the International Energy Agency. As the legal successor of the USSR, Russia cooperates with the International Labor Organization (ILO). Russia has observer status in the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Bondarev N. D.

Arkhyz and Bolshaya Laba. -M, 2002.

Foreword

General information

Features of travel in spring and summer

History pages

B.Laba Valley

M1. Kurdzhinovo - pos. Phia.

M2. To the origins of the Great Laba.

MZ. Ashirhumara

M4. To the Labinsk glacier.

Zagedan

M5. To the Zagedan lakes (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

phia

M6. Rechepsta River - trans. Phiya - pos. Phia (23 km, trail, 1 day)

M7. Phiya village - r. Phiya - trans. Urup-Phiya - at the source of the river. Atsgara.

Stormy and Azimba

M8. River B. Laba - r. Stormy - lane. Vorontsova-Velyaminov - l. Azimba - r. Azimba (25 km, 2 days)

M9. Burnaya River - lane. Duritsky - r. Amanauz (17 km, 1 day)

From the upper reaches of Bolshaya Laba

M10. River B. Laba - trans. Zegerker - trans. 46th Army - trans. Alashtrahu, trail, 12 km, 1 day.

M11. Glacier Labinsky - lane. Psyrs - Psyrs lakes (1.5 days)

Sanchara

M12. Phiya village - r. Sanchara - trans. Sanchara - trans. Ad-zapsh, trail, 2 days.

M13. Glade 7th post - mineral springs Adzapsh - per. Adapsh.

M14. Mineral springs Adzapsh - trail along the crest of the GKH - per. V. Damkhurts - the valley of the river. Damkhurts (trail, 2 days).

M15. River B. Laba - trans. Abgytskha - the left source of the river. Abgytskha (20 km, 1.5 days)

Other routes

Makera

M16. Phiya village - r. Makera - trans. Makera (trail)

Mamhurts

M17. The village of Damkhurts - r. Mamhurts - "Seven lakes" (4-5 days)

Other routes

Damkhurts

M18. The village of Damkhurts - per. Damkhurts

Other routes

Big Zelenchuk. Arkhyz

On the way to Arkhyz

M19. Village Zelenchukskaya - aul Arkhyz (highway, 48 km).

M20. Lower Yermolovka - gully Curve - ancient settlement Shpil - r. Kyafar (trail, 1-2 days).

M21. Monuments of Nizhny Arkhyz (1 day).

M22. To the Savior Not Made by Hands

M23. Lower Arkhyz - Jeti-Karasu tract - Large azimuth telescope.

M24. Climbing Mount Pastukhovaya (2733 m, 4 h)

Other routes

In the vicinity of the village Arkhyz

M25. Medieval Alan settlement (excursion for 4 hours).

M26. Barite beam - Mt. Abishira-Akhuba (8 hours).

M27. Rock Karcha-Tebe - trans. Byoryu-aush

M28. Arkhyz outlook (6 hours).

M29. Cossack glade - Morkh-Syrty lakes - lane. Ozerny.

M30. Climbing Mount Krasnaya (trail, half a day)

Other routes

Arkhyz river valley

M31. Aul Arkhyz - r. Arkhyz (19 km, road).

M32. Arkhyz river - Gabulu-Chat plateau - Smirnova town -r. Psysh (2 days, trail).

M33. Dukka River - trans. Ayulu - r. White - r. Psysh (26 km, 2 days).

M34. Dukka Pass - r. Stormy - r. B. Laba.

M35. Fedoseev Pass (1 A, 2880 m).

M36. Rechepsta River - trans. Atsgara - r. Atsgara (trail, 17 km).

Other routes

Psysh

M37. River valley Psysh - lake. Naurskoye (trail, 31 km).

M38. Naur Pass (1 A, 2839 m).

M39. Magana pass - lakes Psyrs - per. Bearish.

M40. Pshish pass

M41. Sekirtme River - trans. Chuchkhur - Green lakes - per. Hare Ears or per. Kholodovsky - r. Psysh (3 days)

M42. Bush Glacier - trans. Kizgych False - trans. Chuchkhurskaya Shchel - per. Chamagwara.

M43. Glacier Psysh - trans. Tokmak and per. Psysh.

Other routes

White and amanauz

M44. Belaya River (Ayulu) - lane. Dorbun - the source of the river. Stormy

M45. River Gorge Amanauz - trans. Tornau i per. Bear-Labinsky glacier.

M46. Amanauz River - trans. Poachers - r. Burnaya (9 km)

M47. Amanauz and Azimba passes

Other routes

Sofia

M48. Aul Arkhyz - r. Sofia - Glacier farm (road, 16 km).

M49. Sofia waterfalls (half day tour) leave an unforgettable impression.

M50. Sofia Saddle Pass (2640 m)

M51. Glacier farm - r. Ak-Airy - trans. Bash-Jol -r. Psysh (20 km, 1 day)

M52. Ak-Airy River - trans. Topal-Aush (Kozhukhova) - Green lakes (2 days)

M53. Ak-Ayra Glacier - trans. Ak-Airy - r. Kyshlau-su (1 day)

M54. Climbing Mount Nadezhda (1A, 3355 m, 10-12 h)

M55. Ak-Airy River - trans. Kel-Aush - Upper Sofia Lakes - Kel-Bashi city - r. Ak Airy (2-3 days)

M56. River valley Sofia - Gammesh Chat lakes (excursion, 15 km)

M57. Sofia River - trans. Eaglet - lake. Kraternoye - lake. Comma - lakes Kashkha-Echki-Chat - r. Sofia (16 km, 2 3 days)

Other routes

Kizgich

M58. Aul Arkhyz - r. Kizgych - Kshgych-Bash tract (trail, 3-6 days).

M59. Kizgych-Bash tract - Besh-Chuchkhur waterfall - Green lakes (one-day excursion).

M60. Passes Kizgych and Satkharo

M61. The tract Kizgych-Bash - the valley of the river. Salynngan - l. Saleunggan (one day tour)

M62. Lake Mironova (excursion for 6-8 hours)

M63. Kongur, Salynggan, Chvakhra passes

M64. The Baga-Tala tract - per. Bugoychat - r. Marukh (14 km)

M65. Pass of the 810th Rifle Regiment (1 B, 3000 m)

M66. Pass Kurella - lane. Chvakhra - trans. Kongur - trans. Satkharo - trans. Kizgych False

Kafar-Urup. Abishira-Akhuba

M67. The village of Zelenchukskaya - the village of Storozhevaya - the village. Leso-Kyafar

M68. Stanitsa Zelenchukskaya - r. B. Zelenchuk - Generovskaya beam - r. Kyafar-Agur - forestry cordon

At the source of the Kyafar-Agur River

M69. Ridge Kyzylchuk - Scattered hillock - Agur lakes - per. Fedoseeva - Arkhyz (trail, 4-6 days).

M70. Agur lakes - lane. Agur - trans. Mylgval - lake. Kyzylchuk (1-1.5 days).

M71. River Zap. Agur - trans. Kumbyzh - lake. Kyzylchuk - lake. Fish (trail, 4-5 hours).

Other routes

Kyzylchuk. Chilik.

M72. Loose hillock - the tract Kumbyzh - r. Kyzylchuk - lake. Fish - per. Rechepsta - r. Arkhyz (3-4 days)

M73. Fish Lake - per. Kynhara - lake. Chilik - trans. Chilik - r. Arkhyz (1.5-2 days)

M74. Fish Lake - per. Kyzylchuk - lake. Chilik - trans. Psykela - r. Atsgara - Field of poppies (2-3 days)

M75. Traverse Mt. Abishira-Akhuba from the lane. Chilik to per. Rechepsta

M76. Kyafar-Rechepsta pass (1A, 3000 m)

M77. Kyafar-Arkhyz pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Atsgara

M78. Atsgara River - trans. Zagedan - r. Zagedanka - r. B. Laba (1-1.5 days).

M79. Glade of poppies - lane. Kabanly - r. Zagedanka -r. B. Laba

M80. Glade of poppies - lane. Kirthua - r. Zagedanka -r. B. Laba (1.5 days)

To the source of the river Urup

M81. The village of Urup - Mt. Akshirsky - the upper reaches of the river. Urup -r. Zagedanka (trail, 3-4 days)

M82. Big Urup Canyon

M83. Urup-Atsgara pass (1 A*, 3000 m)

Other routes

Brief Toponymic Dictionary

FOREWORD

The Western Caucasus is one of the most popular areas of mountain tourism, which experienced a decline in attendance in the 90s, as, indeed, the entire Caucasus as a whole. In recent years, tourists and climbers have begun to return here. Convenient entrances, various, technically interesting passes and peaks, many high-mountain lakes - all this attracts lovers of mountain travel.

The last book on this area was the guidebook "Mountain travel in the Western Caucasus" (V. V. Arsenin, N. D. Bondarev, E. D. Sergievsky. M: FiS, 1976). From that time on Zap. The Caucasus has undergone major changes.

The paths to the southern slopes of the Main Caucasian Range (GKH) were cut off due to the appearance of the state border, new routes were mastered on the northern slopes. There was a need for a new guide, and it was decided to publish it in two books: "Arkhyz. Bolshaya Laba" (N. D. Bondarev) and "From Marukh to Elbrus" (V. V. Arsenin). They continue the series of guidebooks "Elbrus and its spurs" and "South of Baksan" (A. A. Alekseev).

The guide for each valley first describes the approaches, then the pass routes to the neighboring gorges. By joining separate sections, you can make multi-day routes of different categories of complexity. Descriptions of the passage of passes are tied mainly to July - August. A separate section is devoted to travel in the off-season (April - May, October - November). Techniques for overcoming the mountainous terrain, with rare exceptions, are not given.

Due to rare visits to some valleys, descriptions of individual sites may not correspond to the specific situation, primarily in terms of the condition of paths, bridges, and the location of cats. In recent years, intensive melting of glaciers has been observed in the Caucasus, which is why already in August large areas open up even on the slopes of the northern exposure. open ice increases the risk of rock falls.

In the descriptions, the indications "left" and "right" are used in an orographic sense, when the observer looks down the river. Other is stipulated.

At present, the region has become borderline. To visit it, especially near the border with Abkhazia, a permit is required, which can be obtained in advance at the address: 357100, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Cherkessk, st. Leonova, 2, military unit 2011.

At the end of the book is a list of literature that allows you to become more familiar with the nature and history of the area.

In the guide, the chapter "General Geographical Information" was written jointly with V. V. Arsenin. E. A. Alperten, E. A. Chernopyatov took part in the descriptions of the routes. A. Kovalenko, A. Kozhukhov, N. V. Koloshina, V. P. Kuznetsov, I. T. Kuznetsov, V. A. Lunin, P. F. Chirukhin, V. Ya. . It should be noted that L. V. Wegener played a special role in the preparation of the guide. He compiled a toponymic dictionary, described several routes and made valuable comments on the text and diagrams.

The guidebook uses photographs by E. A. Alperten, N. D. Bondarev, V. A. Zheltyakov, N. Yu. Kretov, A. V. Pavelchik and E. A. Chernopyatov. At the final stage of preparing the book, V. A. Kozhin, V. V. Konyshev, L. V. Turkina, E. A. Chernopyatov did a great deal of technical work.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

The Western Caucasus is the region of the Caucasus west of Elbrus with borders along the upper reaches of the Kuban and Nenskra. In a narrower sense, to Zap. The Caucasus includes the area that includes the high-altitude, glacier-covered section of the Main Caucasian Range (GKH) about 200 km long. Located to the west, the lower mountains belong to the North-West. Caucasus.

The guide covers part of Zap. Caucasus with mountains in the upper reaches of B. Zelenchuk, B. Laba, Kyafar-Agur and Urup. Administratively, this territory belongs to the Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Stavropol and Krasnodar Territories. The highest peaks of the region are Pshish (3790 m) and Sofia (3640 m).

To the north, spurs depart from the GKH, separated by deep valleys of the B. Zelenchuk and B. Laba tributaries. At a distance of about 20 km from the GKH, the ridge is located parallel to it. Abishira-Akhuba, belonging to the system of the Advanced (Lateral) Range. By the way, Elbrus (5642 m) also belongs to it. Even further north, along Peredovoe, the Rocky Range stretches (altitude about 2000 m), which has gentle northern slopes. To the south of the GKH are the Bzybsky and Chkhalta ridges. Their spurs, cut by deep canyons of the Amtkel, Jampal, Kelasuri and Gumista rivers, gradually disappear towards the Black Sea coast.

The rivers of the northern slope of the GKH cut through the Side Range with narrow gorges, and in the upper reaches many valleys have extensive basins. The rivers originate from glaciers and snowfields, the maximum water falls in the summer, for the most part the rivers are clean and transparent.

The mountain river is a serious obstacle. The crossing is especially difficult in rainy weather, when the water level rises noticeably. In the Caucasus, where there is a fairly dense network of roads and trails, there are bridges across almost all major rivers. It is necessary to tie a route to them. Shepherds arrange luggage, temporary bridges and across large streams. You can find out about the state of these crossings in the villages, kosh.

There are many lakes in this region. At a height, the largest of them lie in the caravans left by ancient glaciers. Numerous small tarns and moraine lakes (some with ice until the end of summer) give these mountains a special charm.

The higher the mountainous country is raised, the deeper and more ancient stone layers are opened up and come into view as a result of weathering and washing away of rocks. When traveling through the valleys of the Kuban, near Cherkessk, near the river, you see Quaternary deposits and sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary period (up to 65 million years old), beyond Ust-Dzhegutinskaya - the Cretaceous period (up to 140 million years old). Then, at the entrance to Karachaevsk and behind it, you cross a wide belt of Jurassic rocks (up to 200 Ma).

On the seismic map of the country, the Caucasus is assigned to the 7-8 point zone. An earthquake in the mountains is dangerous due to the occurrence of rockfalls, collapse of cornices and mudflows. A strong earthquake, called Chkhalta, occurred on July 16, 1963. Its epicenter was near the village of Ptysh, which caused great damage. A rockfall led to a tragedy in a group of climbers on the wall of Mount Dombay-Ulgen.

Landslides occurred on the southern slope of the GKH, where at that time there was a thunderstorm with a downpour. As a result, the road to the village was destroyed in several places. Chkhalta. The landslide blocked the upper reaches of the river. Ptysh. The river swept away the barrier, the mudflow washed away the banks and knocked down the forest.

Although strong tremors are rare, the probability of them forces one to carefully approach the choice of a bivouac site, critically evaluating it (including ready-made sites) from the point of view of rockfall.

Two factors have a decisive influence on the climate of the region: proximity to the Black Sea and the chain high mountains. The influence of the sea is stronger on the southern slopes, which intercept a significant part of the moisture of warm western and southwestern winds. At their foot and on the coast, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls annually. With height, the amount of precipitation increases, reaching 3000 mm or more. In winter, a lot of snow falls at moderate altitudes; in the highlands, the thickness of the snow cover reaches several meters.

The northern slopes are colder and drier. When crossing the GKH, this difference is very noticeable. As the mountains rise, the temperature drops and the amount of precipitation increases. In Teberda, located at an altitude of about 1300 m, the average temperature in July is +15.6 "C, in January ~ 4 "C, about 700 mm of precipitation falls per year.

In Dombai (1630 m) the temperature is several degrees lower, and the precipitation is twice as much. According to long-term observations at the meteorological station "Klukhorsky pass" (2037 m), the height of the snow cover reaches 2 m, and on the pre-summit slopes it reaches 4 m. The rainiest months are May and June. The relatively dry season runs from August to October. In August, at altitudes of 2500 m, frosts are already frequent.

Over the past hundred years, the area of ​​most glaciers has decreased by about a quarter, and their number has increased due to crushing (although some small ones have disappeared altogether). The average thickness of cirque glaciers is 25-30 m, and that of large valley glaciers is 100 m. The glaciers continue to retreat, moraines are covered with grass and shrubs. The Caucasus is characterized by the proximity of glaciers and bright greenery. Azalea blooms in the Khetskvara Gorge in July, a few dozen meters from the glacier.

Avalanche danger occurs in late autumn in October - November, when snowfalls begin. Dry snow avalanches occur during or immediately after heavy snowfalls (70-100 mm per day). During snowstorms, snow boards form. In cold winters with little snow, the cause of an avalanche can be the formation of an unstable layer of deep frost. With the transition of the average daily temperature through 0 ° C in March - April, the time of wet avalanches begins. They are also possible in winter during thaws. Mass avalanches usually end by May, but in the highlands this period is delayed. On snowy slopes and under eaves, avalanche danger persists all year round.

Avalanche cones remain at the foot of the slopes until the middle, and in shaded places until the end of summer. The danger of avalanches also exists in the middle mountains: avalanche centers, although rare, are known near Teberda and Arkhyz. Special attention to avalanche danger is required when traveling in spring (May) and autumn.

Entering the mountains from the north, you first cross the belt of deciduous forests, starting from a height of 500-600 m. beech. In the wide developed parts of the valleys, such forests are found in islands, but they cover the steep, hard-to-reach slopes of the gorges completely. Alder and willow grow along the banks of the rivers. At altitudes from 1200-1400 m to 2200 m there are dark coniferous forests (fir, spruce). Dry sunny slopes and rocks are occupied by pine.

Above is the subalpine belt, the limits of which range from 1800 to 2500 m. Above the edge of the tall forest, a strip of beech, birch, and maple crooked forests stretches. Thickets of rhododendrons also creep here, the bushes of which bloom at different times, and its white or cream inflorescences can be seen almost all summer. Even higher lie tall-grass, human-height meadows. Here is the realm of flowers: orange elecampane, blue bells, white daisies, pink mallows, yellow lilies, crimson clover. In the middle of a sea of ​​flowers, three-meter hogweed umbrellas rise. Touching it causes long-term non-healing burns.

On the gentle slopes where cattle graze, the herbage is poorer. Thickets of horse sorrel and poisonous hellebore stand out here. In alpine meadows (2500-3200 m) short grass does not hide stones. The floral carpet is filled with bright blue hyacinths, purple primroses, yellow buttercups, pink asters and purple bluebells. Grass and flowers also grow on rock shelves high above snowfields and ice.

Animal world includes more than 40 species of mammals and 120 species of birds. Wild boar, roe deer, Caucasian deer, fox, lynx, jackal, and marten are found in the forests. The hare is found everywhere. The Altai squirrel, introduced in 1937, has spread. There are also wolves. In the Caucasian and Teberdinsky reserves, work is underway to restore the herd exterminated at the beginning of the 20th century. Caucasian bison. The brown bear stays near the border of the forest in summer, where you can stumble upon a nest he left behind. It also enters the valleys, especially the raspberries. On the grassy ledges near the forest, you can see a herd of chamois, and on the rocks in the upper reaches of the gorges - tours. Turya "paths" go along barely noticeable ledges and shelves, traces of tours are also found on snowfields. It is dangerous to be below these animals, because stones can fall from under the hooves!

Among the birds of the forest and meadow belts, there are both common for middle lane- jay, woodpecker, cuckoo, and mountain - stone partridge (keklik), griffon vulture, black vulture. In the highlands lives the snowcock (large gray turkey) and the black alpine jackdaw with a yellow beak, which lives near glaciers and snowfields.

Of the reptiles, there are (up to the rocks of the Alpine belt) lizards, snakes, copperheads, steppe and Caucasian vipers. Caucasian viper, endemic Zap. Caucasus, occurs up to a height of 2500 m in glades and overgrown screes. In the subalpine zone, the viper keeps near rocks and talus. It can have a different color, but it is characterized by a wide black zigzag stripe on the back. The snake is difficult to distinguish among dry fern leaves or stones covered with lichens.

Trout is found in rivers and some lakes.

On the Zap. There are nature reserves in the Caucasus - Caucasian and Teberdinsky (with a branch in Arkhyz). Permission is required to stay in them. In the gorges (B. Zelenchuk, Urup, B. Laba, etc.), sanctuaries have been created where hunting, fishing, and berry picking are prohibited.

The foothills and valleys suitable for agriculture and horticulture are densely populated. The main type of economic activity is cattle breeding. The movement of livestock to mountain pastures takes place in May-June, the season usually lasts until September. For temporary residence, traditional koshi are used - huts made of logs, stone, shreds or twigs and tents.

Meadows in the valleys, where there are roads, are used for haymaking. Highlanders value them, clean them from stones and enclose them. In no case should you trample the grass, shortening the paths, arrange a bivouac on it and scatter stones.

Geographical terms and concepts. Geographic definitions. Altitude is the vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points above sea level is considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth- the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; is calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° clockwise.

Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or sitting aground.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70°S.
Anticyclone- area of ​​high air pressure in the atmosphere.

area- the area of ​​distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
arctic belt– descends from the North Pole to 70°N.
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere the air envelope of the earth.
Atoll – coral island in the form of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in the steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan- accumulation of loose sand, blown by the wind and not fixed by vegetation.
Swimming pool- the area of ​​lowering, which does not have a runoff on the surface.
Shore- a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending to the water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze- local wind on the shores of the seas, lakes and large rivers. Daytime breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along the Brocken mountain in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special kind of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind- the movement of air relative to the ground, usually horizontal, is directed from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is specified in m/s, km/h, knots, or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Air humidity- the content of water vapor in it.
Watershed- boundary between watersheds.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves- oscillatory movements of the aquatic environment of the seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), atmospheric pressure fluctuations (anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
highlands- a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems of the planet: Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, in India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zonality- change of natural zones in the mountains from the sole to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographical coordinates- angular quantities that determine the position of any point on the globe relative to the equator and the prime meridian.
Geospheres- shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
The mountains- vast territories with absolute heights up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their limits.
mountain system- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief form; formed by hills lined up in a row and merged with their foothills.
Delta- the area of ​​​​deposition of river sediments at the mouth of the river when it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographic is the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through the given point and the plane of the initial meridian; measured in degrees and measured from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief form.
Dunes- the accumulation of sand on the shores of the seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
gulf- a part of the ocean (sea or lake), which goes quite deep into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The earth's crust is the outer shell of the earth.
Swell- small, with a calm uniform wave, the excitement of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere- high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source- the place where the river begins.
Canyon- a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater margin of the mainland.
Karst- dissolution of rocks by natural waters and the phenomenon associated with it. Climate is the long-term regime of the weather in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or belt)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Spit- a sand or pebble shaft, stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression that arose after the explosion of a volcano.
Ridge- a sharply uplifting large uplift, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche A mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
landscape geographical- type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous section of the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along the slope of a mountain or along a valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, the maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total ice volume is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
glacial period- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– a shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by an oblique or embankment.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle The shell of the earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland- a large part of the land, surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia- in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific Oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South- in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica– in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and most high mainland on the planet);
Africa- in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia- in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent of the Earth).
Meridians geographically e - imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at a right angle; all their points lie on the same geographic longitude.
World Ocean- all the water space of the Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the season: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
uplands- a mountainous country characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highlands on Earth. Its base rests at absolute heights of 3500-5000 m and more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
low mountains- the lower tier of mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them are the Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland- a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazonian lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest in the world is the Caspian Sea-Lake and the deepest is Baikal.
oceans- parts of the oceans, separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide- displacement down the slope of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographic parallels- imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
the greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) - the protective effects of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
trade winds- constant winds in tropical regions blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) a high plain, bounded by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountaintop.
underwater plateau- elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos- a deep (wide) section of the river bed between riffles.
Plateau- a vast piece of land with a height of 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat tops and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim Plateau.
floodplain- part of the river valley, which is flooded in the flood.
semi-desert- transitional landscape, combining the features of the steppe or desert.
hemisphere- half of the earth's sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160 ° E. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or on other grounds.
Geographic poles- points of intersection of the axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface. Magnetic points of the Earth - points on the earth's surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where the magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation to the cardinal points.
arctic circles(North and South) - parallels that are 66 ° 33 ′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold- a shallow area in a riverbed with a large slope and a fast current.
foothills- hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebb and flow- periodic fluctuations in the water level of the seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the moon and the sun.
desert- vast areas with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert in the world is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains- vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is East European, or Russian, with an area of ​​​​more than 6 million km2 and West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​\u200b\u200babout 3 million km2.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a channel. Amazon - a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (from the source of the Ucayali River more than 7000 km), in terms of basin area (7180 m2) and in terms of water content; The Mississippi is the largest river in the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief- a set of various irregularities of the earth's surface of various origins; are formed by a combination of impacts on the earth's surface of endogenous and exogenous processes.
channel- the deepest part of the valley floor, occupied by the river.
Savannah- the landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which grassy vegetation is combined with individual trees or their groups.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the surface of the Earth in the North. hemisphere.
sel- a mud or mud-stone stream, suddenly passing through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado(American title tornado) - vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Middle mountains- mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. Mountain structures of medium height are the most on Earth. They spread over the vast expanses of the south and northeast of Siberia. Almost all of them are occupied Far East, eastern China and the Indochina peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- a sloping area on land or the bottom of the sea. Windward Slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope - facing away from the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe- treeless spaces with an arid climate, which are characterized by grassy vegetation. In Eurasia, the steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America they occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, merging in the south with the savannahs of the tropical belt.
Stratosphere- layer of the atmosphere.
subtropical belts(subtropics) - located between the tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts- located between the equatorial belt and tropical belts.
Taiga- zone of coniferous forests of the temperate zone. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements- movements of the earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, spaced 23 ° 30 ° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural belts.
tropical belts- located between the subtropical and subequatorial belts.
Troposphere- the lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra- treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
temperate zones are located in temperate latitudes.
temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N and between 42°S and 58°S
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
mouth A place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
front atmospheric A zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- narrow deep sea ​​bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill- small in height and sparing gently sloping hill.
Cyclones- area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami- the Japanese name for the huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world- regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts of them) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths up to 200 m (more in some cases).
Geographic latitude- the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and measured from the equator to the north and south.
Squall- a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- Calm, stillness.
Storm- very strong wind, accompanied by strong sea waves.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe that are equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere- layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of ​​​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion- destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the southern hemisphere.
Earth's core- the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave- a part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and not having access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, infrastructural ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (exports of the country) and imported (imports).
population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase, which ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographic environment- a part of earthly nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics- the dependence of the foreign policy of the state on the geographical location and other physical and economic-geographical factors.
Global population problems- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all mankind, creating a threat to its present and future; joint efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Demographic policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences the natural increase of the population in the desired direction.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about the population, the patterns of its reproduction.
natural population growth- the difference between the birth and death rates per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- Import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization - the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agrarian to an industrial one.
Integration international economic- the process of establishing deep and stable economic relations between countries, based on the implementation of their coordinated interstate policy.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for the normal functioning and ensuring the daily life of the population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement, which arose as a result of the merging of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological ties.
Population migration- the movement of the population across the territory, associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- the level of costs for research and development in the total cost of production.
Scientific and technological revolution (NTR)- a fundamental qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- historical and social community of people, formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises that produce homogeneous products or provide homogeneous services.
Socio-economic area- the territory of the country, including several administrative units, differing from others in the features of historical development, geographic location, natural and labor resources, specialization of the economy.
Zoning- the division of the territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a complex of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures contributing to the rational distribution of production across the territory and the equalization of people's living standards.
Resource availability- the ratio between the value of natural resources and the size of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a profitable EGP, where, in order to attract foreign capital, a preferential tax and customs regime, special pricing conditions are established.
Production specialization- production by enterprises of individual parts and assemblies, certain types of products, the performance of one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or services
The structure of the national economy- the ratio between different areas and industries in terms of the value of products, the number of employees, or the value of fixed production assets.
suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Human Resources- part of the country's population capable of labor activity and possessing the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of settlements.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of an individual consumer.
Economic and geographical position (EGP)- the position of an object in relation to others geographical objects that are of economic importance to him.
Economically active population- part of the country's population, a comma in the national economy, and the unemployed, actively looking for work and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to the quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long time.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people, which has a unique internal structure and an original stereotype of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the "native" landscape.