The Swiss Confederation is a state in Central Europe. By state structure- federal Republic. The area of ​​the country is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. In the north it borders with Germany, in the west with France, in the south with Italy, in the east with Austria and Liechtenstein. The northern border runs partly along Lake Constance and the Rhine, which starts in the center of the Swiss Alps and forms part of the eastern border. The western border runs along the Jura mountains, the southern - along the Italian Alps and Lake Geneva. The capital of Switzerland is Bern.

Three natural regions are distinguishable on the territory of Switzerland: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast.

Switzerland and France, stretching from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen. The Swiss plateau formed at the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial deposits in the Pleistocene and is currently cut through by numerous rivers. Most of the country's population is concentrated here, located big cities and industrial centers. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in the same region.

Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. Mountains of Switzerland high, uneven, snow-covered mountains are dissected by deep gorges. In the ridge zone there are firn fields and glaciers (10% of the country's territory). The most high peaks- Peak Dufour (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Climate of Switzerland

Switzerland belongs to the temperate continental climate region. But, speaking about the climate of this country, it should be borne in mind that about 60% of its territory is occupied by mountains, so here you can get from winter to summer in two hours. The Alps are a kind of barrier that prevents the flow of cold arctic masses to the south, and warm subtropical masses to the north. In the northern cantons, winter is mild and lasts about 3 months: from December to February. At this time, the minimum temperature is -1...-4, the maximum +2...+5 degrees. In summer (from June to August) at night it is usually +11...+13 degrees, in the daytime the air warms up to +22...+25 degrees. There is quite a lot of precipitation throughout the year. Their maximum falls on summer period(up to 140 mm per month), at least for the period from January to March (slightly more than 60 mm per month).

In the south, winter temperatures are almost the same, and summer temperatures are higher. The average minimum temperature is +13...+16, the average maximum temperature is +26...+28. There is more rainfall in this area. From March to November, more than 100 mm of precipitation per month falls here, and from June to August this amount approaches 200 mm. The least precipitation falls in January and February (about 60 mm).

Statistical indicators of Switzerland
(as of 2012)

The weather in the mountains depends on the altitude of the area. It is snowy in the highlands in winter. The temperature for most of the year (from October to May) is negative both at night and during the day. In the coldest months (January and February) at night the temperature drops to -10...-15, during the day - to -5...-10. It is warmest in July and August (2...7 degrees at night, 5...10 degrees in the daytime). Max Height snow is observed, as a rule, in early April. At an altitude of 700 meters, it lasts 3 months, 1000 meters - 4.5 months, 2500 meters - 10.5 months.

Water system of Switzerland

The Rhine and its tributary Aare flow through most of Switzerland. The southwestern regions belong to the drainage basin of the Rhone, the southern regions to the Ticino basin and the southeastern regions to the river basin. Inn (a tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable value. On the Rhine, navigation is supported only as far as Basel.

Many lakes, the most picturesque of them are located along the edges of the Swiss plateau - Geneva, Thun in the south, Firwaldstet, Zurich in the east, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north. Most of these lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed during an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains to the Swiss plateau. South of the axis of the Alps in the canton of Ticino are the lakes of Lugano and Lago Maggiore.

Flora of Switzerland

About 1/4 of the country's territory is covered with forests. The composition of forests depends on the height above sea level. Broad-leaved forests of oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, and linden predominate in the region of the Swiss plateau up to a height of 800 m. Above 1000 m, broad-leaved species remain mainly beech; spruces, pines, firs appear. And starting from a height of 1800 m, the main place is occupied by coniferous forests of spruce, fir, pine and larch. At the highest altitudes (up to 2800 m) there are subalpine and alpine meadows, thickets of rhododendron, azaleas, juniper.

The Swiss Plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, sometimes pine is mixed with them. On the southern slope of the Alps, the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the slopes of the mountains, coniferous forests grow, forming a transitional belt between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). Crocuses and daffodils are typical for alpine flowers in spring, rhododendrons, saxifrage, gentian and edelweiss are typical in summer.

Animal world of Switzerland

The animal world is severely depleted. While the snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tiers as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common. Great efforts are being made to protect wildlife. In the Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, roe deer and chamois live, less often - alpine ibex and fox; there are also white partridge and several species of birds of prey. There are numerous reserves and sanctuaries.

In the mountains there are fox, hare, chamois, marten, alpine marmot, among birds - capercaillie, thrush, swift, snow finch. On the shores of the lakes you can meet gulls, and in the lakes - trout, char, whitefish, grayling.

Three natural regions are distinguishable on the territory of Switzerland: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast.

The Jura Mountains separate Switzerland and France, stretching from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen.

The Swiss Plateau was formed on the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. Most of the country's population lives here, large cities and industrial centers are located.

Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. The picturesque nature of the highlands of the Alps attracts many tourists and climbers. The highest peaks are Dufour peak (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m ) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Most of Switzerland is irrigated by the Rhine and its tributary Aare. The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable value. On the Rhine, navigation is supported only as far as Basel.

The large and small lakes of Switzerland are very picturesque. The largest and most famous is Lake Geneva. No less famous is Firvaldshtet Lake, formed from seven reservoirs. Lakes Brienz and Thun are separated by a muddy delta of the Lucine River.

In the northeast of Switzerland belongs part of Lake Constance. Most of the lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed in an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains to the Swiss plateau.

In Switzerland, there are pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to the sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau - moderately warm, in the mountains - cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average during the year from +10 to +16°C, in summer they rise to +27°C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest month is January.

The highest peaks of the Alps are covered with eternal snows. In winter, the temperature drops below 0 ° C throughout the country, with the exception of the northern coast Lake Geneva and the shores of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, part of which belongs to Italy. The climate there is as mild as in northern Italy, as the mountains protect against the intrusion of cold northern winds.

In Switzerland, sharp strong winds are frequent, accompanied by rain and snowfalls. Foehns prevail in spring, summer and autumn - warm, dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. Since the currents of humid air from the Mediterranean Sea rise up the slopes of the Alps, and then descend to the Swiss plateau, the southern slopes receive almost twice as much precipitation as the northern ones.

The Swiss Plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, sometimes pine is mixed with them. On the southern slope of the Alps, the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the slopes of the mountains, coniferous forests grow, forming a transitional belt between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). There are many bright colors in the mountains. In spring, crocuses and daffodils bloom, in summer - rhododendrons, saxifrage, gentian and edelweiss.

The animal world has been strongly influenced economic activity person. While the snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tiers as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common.

In the Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, roe deer and chamois live, less often - Alpine ibex and fox; there are also white partridge and several species of birds of prey.

From an airplane flying over Switzerland, it seems that there is literally nowhere to land: there are no plains, mountains everywhere with snowy peaks sparkling in the sun; like the teeth of a huge comb, here and there rocky peaks stick out, in narrow gorges the threads of turbulent streams silver. In Switzerland there is the most powerful, the highest part of the Alps - the main mountain system of Foreign Europe. Mountains occupy the entire central and largely southern and eastern parts of the country. The Rhone and Rhine valleys divide the Swiss Alps into two almost parallel groups of mountain ranges, stretching from the southwest to the northeast. To the north of these valleys rise the Bernese Alps with the Finsterarhorn and Jungfrau peaks exceeding 4,000 m, as well as the Vierwaldstät Alps and the Glarn Alps. To the south of the valleys are the Pennine Alps with the Dufour peak (4634 m) - the highest point in Switzerland, the second peak after Mont Blanc in Foreign Europe, and the Lepontine Alps. The highest part of the Alps is composed of crystalline rocks (granites, gneisses) and limestones. The highlands are covered with eternal snow and glaciers. The largest of these glaciers and one of the largest in Europe - Aletsch is located in the heart of the Bernese Alps. It stretches for 27 km, covering an area of ​​115 sq. km. Between the Bernese Alps and the Jura, from the Rhine flowing along the border with Germany to Lake Geneva, an undulating low (400-600 m) Swiss plateau stretches. The main charm of the landscape here is represented by large lakes - Zurich, Neuchâtel, Geneva - and rounded green hills. The Swiss plateau is the most populated part of the country. Here are located its most important industrial and agricultural regions and the largest cities - Zurich, Basel, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne. Due to the complexity of the relief, the climatic conditions of different regions of Switzerland are different. In the Alps, for example, winters are relatively cold (temperatures usually drop to -10° -12°, sometimes down to -20°), but almost always very sunny. That is why tuberculosis patients have long flocked to Davos, Montana, St. Moritz, Zermatt and other mountainous places in the hope of a cure. These small towns, while maintaining their importance as climatic resorts, are increasingly becoming centers of tourism and skiing; around, they often host international sports competitions. Above 2500-3000 m snow does not melt throughout the year. In winter and spring, due to the accumulation of snow on the slopes, snow falls are not uncommon. In summer, rains and fogs are frequent in the mountains. On the Swiss plateau, winters are mild, with an average January temperature of around -2°C. Snow usually lasts only a few days. In December and January, strong winds blow from the Atlantic, bringing rain, fogs are frequent, there is almost no sun, and the atmospheric pressure changes sharply every now and then. On the other hand, the summer is warm (the average temperature in July is + 18°), the autumn is long and sunny. This climate is conducive to agricultural work. On the Swiss plateau, even grapes have time to ripen. This area and the foothills of the Alps are characterized by “bizas” - gusty, cold and damp winds from the Atlantic, blowing (an interesting natural phenomenon!) Without interruption a number of days, a multiple of three, sometimes up to nine days, as well as foehns - winds that cross through the Alps and descending into the valleys of Switzerland very dry and warm. The mildest and warmest climate is in the interior mountain valleys and basins. For example, in the canton of Tessin, in the so-called Italian Switzerland, on the coast of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, protected by mountains from cold northern winds, there are many sunny days, there are no large temperature fluctuations and strong seasonal weather fluctuations. Palm trees, magnolias and other plants of the southern countries grow here in the open ground. In Tessin, which, along with some mountainous areas called the "solarium of Switzerland". The rivers of such a small country as Switzerland belong to the basins of three seas: the North, the Mediterranean and the Black. In the Swiss Alps, such large European rivers as the Rhine and the Rhine begin. The Rhone is born in the thickness of the Ronegletcher glacier, at an altitude of 2 thousand meters. From under the blue-white edge of the ice, from the chaos of huge blocks, a narrow stream pours out in a narrow stream, which is destined to run down the entire Valais valley, flow into Lake Geneva and, breaking through its bluish water with a light gray stream, leave Geneva in narrow green gorges from Swiss soil to France. From the Alps, a tributary of the Danube r. Inn, as well as a tributary of the Po - r. Ticino. Almost the entire central part of the country is crossed by the tributary of the Rhine Are, on the high, steep banks of which stands the city of Bern. Most of the rivers are turbulent, full of waterfalls and rapids, which is why they are not suitable for navigation, but they are sources of energy and serve for timber rafting. In the future, it is planned to turn the Rhine and the Rhone into transport arteries. In the meantime, ships do not rise up the Rhine above Basel, beyond which the rapids begin. With the completion of the construction of the Rhine - Main - Danube Canal (in Germany), they will be able to reach Lake Constance on the Austro-Swiss-West German border. Then cargo from the Rhine will be transferred to the Danube. The Atlantic will connect with the Black Sea. There is also a project to connect the Rhine (on the section between Basel and Schaffhausen) with the Rhone, using the river. Are, Lake Neuchâtel and Lake Geneva. The pride of Switzerland is its picturesque lakes. The largest of them are Geneva (588 sq. km) and Constance (537 sq. km), then Neuchâtel, Lago Maggiore, Firvaldshtet (Lake of the Four Cantons), Zurich, Lugano. Some lakes are very deep: the depth of Lago Maggiore is 372 m, and that of Geneva is 310 m. Due to the great depth and transparency of the water, the lakes have a blue or blue color. Their origin is mainly tectonic-glacial. The shores are bordered by wooded hills or rocky mountains, the slopes of which break right into the water. Large lakes are not only places of pilgrimage for tourists, they play a role in shipping, especially passenger traffic. Once upon a time swiss lakes were very rich in fish, but the increasing poisoning of their industrial waste is rapidly depleting natural resources. The question of the protection of lakes and in general environment from pollution is very acute in Switzerland. However, it is not possible to force the owners of plants and factories to carefully purify discharged industrial waters and install reliable filters on chimneys. In recent decades, more than three dozen artificial lakes have appeared on the map of the country - these are reservoirs of hydroelectric power stations. The largest of them is the Grand Dixans in the Pennine Alps. Back in the 18th century Switzerland was covered with dense forests, where bears, wolves, deer, wild boars were found in abundance. Currently, forests are heavily cut down and occupy about % of the country's territory, but they are the most productive in Foreign Europe. On the Swiss plateau there are only isolated groves and parks attached to estates. On the slopes of the mountains, forests are better preserved, especially in the eastern and southern parts of the country. In the east of Switzerland, in the canton of Graubünden, on the rivers Inn and Landquart, a national reserve where flora and fauna are carefully protected. Only in this reserve or in remote mountainous areas can one still meet brown bears, mountain goats, chamois, foxes, hares. On the plateau and on the slopes of the Alps and Jura up to a height of 800 m, cultivated plantations, crops of cereals, forage grasses, orchards, vineyards, hop plantations, and vegetable gardens predominate. At an altitude of 800 to 2000 m, forests stretch, first deciduous - beech and oak, then coniferous - cedar, spruce, pine. Above the forest line there are tall-grass subalpine meadows, which are replaced by alpine ones, covered with stunted shrubs and low herbaceous plants, among which there are many flowering ones, for example, saldanella, primrose; on the steep slopes you can sometimes see edelweiss - the "unofficial" symbol of Switzerland. The soils of Switzerland are not very fertile. Only brown forest soils of the Swiss plateau and the lower parts of the mountain slopes, as well as alluvial soils, occupying very small areas along river valleys, are suitable for processing. In addition, landslides and landslides are not uncommon on the mountain slopes, which demolish the soil layer or cover the cultivated land with stones. High (23.6% of land completely unsuitable for agriculture, such as rocks, glaciers. And only 6.5% of the country's area is suitable for the cultivation of cereals and horticultural crops. In some areas, such as in the Valais valley, an important agricultural land, soil fertility is highly dependent on irrigation.Water is not enough here, and the peasants have to build wooden or stone trays - "bysses", through which water flows from high mountain regions, glacial lakes and rivers to fields and gardens.Fate, which has so generously rewarded Switzerland, with its amazing natural beauty and generally favorable climate, has clearly deprived it of minerals.In the "underground pantry" there are only small reserves of coal, iron ore deposits and small deposits of graphite, talc and asphalt.In the upper Rhone and along the Rhine near the border with Germany, there is a noticeable a role is played by the extraction of rock salt, which covers the needs of the country.There is a fairly significant amount of raw materials for the construction industry - sand, clay, stone. There is an assumption that there are small deposits of uranium ores in the Alps. Poverty in coal and oil forced the Swiss to make every possible use of their exceptionally rich hydropower resources. At present, the vast majority of electricity consumed comes from hydropower plants. However, hydropower reserves are almost exhausted. In this regard, in the late 60s, the construction of nuclear power plants began. Two stages of the nuclear power plant in Beznau (east of the city of Solothurn) with a total capacity of 700 thousand kW and the nuclear power plant in Mühleberg (west of Bern) with a capacity of 306 thousand kW were put into operation. Three more nuclear power plants are under construction.

Switzerland is a country where amazing wonders of nature are concentrated in a small space. On its slightly more than 41 thousand square meters. km, you can see so many diverse landscapes and landscapes that you can not find in any other country with the same small area.

General information about the country

Switzerland is the country of the most reliable banks in the world. This is the country of army knives, chocolate, watches and cheese. But the main thing is that Switzerland is a country with amazing nature.

We offer you to get acquainted with the nature of Switzerland, its most beautiful corners and peculiarities of flora and fauna.

Location

The state is located in the heart of Europe. It borders with Austria in the east, with Germany in the north, with France in the west and in the south with Italy. More than half of the territory is occupied by mountains. It's mostly Alpine mountain system(central part) with the main four passes: Oberalp, St. Gotthard, Furka and Grimsel. Here are the sources of the Rhine and the Rhone.

The nature of Switzerland (photos are presented in the article) is magnificent, mainly due to the mountains. The central and southern part of the territory is occupied by the Alps, in the north-west by the Jura, and in the south by the Apennines. Alps and Jura are separated by a hilly plateau with a large number of tectonic lakes. The area of ​​glaciers is 2,000 sq. km. The height of the mountains is on average 1,700 meters. Mount Monte Rosa, which is the highest peak of the Apennines (southern peak of Dufour), has a height of 4,634 meters.

The legend of the nature of Switzerland

According to one old legend, when the wealth of the bowels of the Earth was distributed by the Lord God, they were not enough for a country located in the very center of Europe. In order to correct such an injustice, the Lord gave Switzerland high mountains with shining glaciers, stormy waterfalls, picturesque valleys, beautiful rivers and azure lakes. And so it turned out unusually beautiful Switzerland. Her landscapes are magnificent in any season and in any weather.

So, the wild nature of Switzerland. What is she?

Mount Matterhorn

This is the most famous mountain peak of the Alps, located on the border of Switzerland with Italy. The peak has the shape of an almost regular pyramid. It rises among low hills and plains, and it is this isolation that gives this mountain such charm.

The height of the Matterhorn is 4,478 meters.

The nature of Switzerland is magnificent due to the variety of landscapes. Travelers call this valley almost the most beautiful and amazing in the whole world. In fact, it is a deep crevice, located between high sheer cliffs. Its length is 8,000 meters, and its width is no more than a kilometer. From this place you can see three beautiful Mountain peaks- Eiger, Mench and Jungfrau (in translation - Ogre, Monk and Virgin).

The peculiarity of the valley lies in the numerous waterfalls. Yes, and the name Lauterbrunnen in translation means "many springs." There are 72 waterfalls in total, and all of them are stunning in their beauty.

The nature of Switzerland cannot be imagined without this lake. No wonder this country is often called "the country of mountains and lakes." And indeed it is. In addition to the mountains that occupy most of its territory, there are more than 1,500 lakes of extraordinary beauty. The largest in the Swiss Alps and the second largest among freshwater bodies of Central Europe is Lake Geneva. Locals often call it Leman. It lies in the floodplain of the river. Rhone.

The lake fascinates with its amazing pristine beauty and unusually clear water. The Alps reliably cover the reservoir from the wind, thanks to which the water surface is almost unshakable, and the peaks of the mountains and all the surrounding nature, along with houses and medieval castles nestled comfortably on the mountain slopes. The lake, stretched out in the shape of a crescent, is located on the border with France (or rather, the border runs along its center).

Vegetable world

The nature of Switzerland is also rich in vegetation. The Swiss plateau extends into a zone of deciduous forests. Oaks and beeches predominate here, sometimes pines are mixed with them. Chestnut is typical for the southern slopes of the Alps. Further in height, coniferous forests grow, which are a transitional zone between alpine meadows located above and broad-leaved forests.

There are many different bright colors in the mountains. Daffodils and crocuses bloom in spring, edelweiss, rhododendrons, gentian and saxifrage in summer.

Animal world

The fauna, in contrast to the flora, is greatly depleted due to human economic activity. The most common inhabitants are hare and snow partridge. And the animals characteristic of the upper tier of the mountains, such as the marmot, roe deer and chamois, are already much less common.

There is a Swiss national park near the border with Austria, where chamois and roe deer live, foxes and ibex are a little less common. Here you can also meet the white partridge and several varieties of birds of prey.

Finally

One should be noted interesting fact. Scientists say that the Swiss Alps are still in the process of formation. According to studies, the height of the mountains increases every year by one millimeter.

It is impossible to describe all the natural attractions of this small European state. The Rhine Falls, the Aletsch Glacier are not all the natural wonders of Switzerland.

Terrain relief.

Three natural regions are distinguishable on the territory of Switzerland: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast.

The Jura Mountains, separating Switzerland and France, stretch from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen. They alternate mountain folds with a predominance of limestone and valleys; folds in places cut through small rivers, forming valleys with steep slopes (clouses). Agriculture is possible only in the valleys; the gentle slopes of the mountains are covered with forests or used as pastures.

The Swiss plateau was formed on the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial deposits in the Pleistocene and is currently cut by numerous rivers. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. Most of the country's population is concentrated here, large cities and industrial centers are located. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in the same region.

Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. These high, uneven, snow-covered mountains are dissected by deep gorges. In the ridge zone there are firn fields and glaciers (10% of the country's territory). The wide bottom of the main valleys is used for fields and arable land. The area is sparsely populated. The Alps serve as the main source of income, since the picturesque nature of the highlands attracts many tourists and climbers. The highest peaks are Dufour peak (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m ) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Water resources.

Most of Switzerland is irrigated by the Rhine and its tributary Aare (the most important of its tributaries are the Reuss and the Limmat). The southwestern regions belong to the drainage basin of the Rhone, the southern to the Ticino basin and the southeastern to the basin of the river. Inn (a tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable value. On the Rhine, navigation is supported only as far as Basel.

Switzerland is famous for its lakes, the most picturesque of them are located along the edges of the Swiss plateau - Geneva, Thun in the south, Vierwaldstet, Zurich in the east, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north. Most of these lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed during an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains to the Swiss plateau. South of the axis of the Alps in the canton of Ticino are the lakes of Lugano and Lago Maggiore.

Climate.

In Switzerland, there are pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to the sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau - moderately warm, in the mountains - cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average during the year from 10 to 16°C, in summer they rise to 27°C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest month is January.

The highest peaks of the Alps are covered with eternal snows. The snow line rises to 2700 m on the western slopes and up to 3200 m on the eastern slopes. In winter, the temperature drops below 0 ° C throughout the country, with the exception of the northern shore of Lake Geneva and the shores of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, part of which belongs to Italy. The climate there is as mild as in northern Italy, because the mountains protect against the intrusion of cold northern winds (bizet). In January-February, in conditions of high pressure prevailing over the Alps, clear cold weather sets in, favorable for winter sports. The southern slopes at this time receive a lot of solar heat.

In Switzerland, sharp strong winds are frequent, accompanied by rain and snowfalls. In spring, summer and autumn dominate Foehns are warm, dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. Since the currents of humid air from the Mediterranean Sea rise up the slopes of the Alps, and then descend to the Swiss plateau, the southern slopes receive almost twice as much precipitation as the northern ones. The average annual precipitation in Basel (277 m a.s.l.) is 810 mm, in Lausanne (375 m) on the northern shore of Lake Geneva - 1040 mm, and in Davos (1580 m) in the southeast of the country - 970 mm.

Flora and fauna.

The Swiss Plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, in some places pine is mixed with them. On the southern slope of the Alps, the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the slopes of the mountains, coniferous forests grow, forming a transitional belt between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). There are many bright colors in the mountains. In spring, crocuses and daffodils bloom, in summer - rhododendrons, saxifrage, gentian and edelweiss.

The animal world has experienced a strong influence of human economic activity. While the snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tiers as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common. Great efforts are being made to protect wildlife. In the Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, roe deer and chamois live, less often - Alpine ibex and fox; there are also white partridge and several species of birds of prey.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition.

The Swiss make up a close-knit national community, although the population consists of ethnic groups speaking different languages ​​(German, French, Italian and Romansh) and often differing in religion. However, mutual tolerance and goodwill allow them to live and work in one country. A typical national image of the Swiss was formed - a short, stocky brown-haired or blond with brown or gray eyes, who has a reputation as an enterprising, hardworking person with business acumen. Many Swiss hold key positions in the economy of other countries. There are many foreigners living in Switzerland. In 1997, foreign workers and other foreigners made up 19.4% of the country's population. Most of the unskilled work in Switzerland is done by foreign workers, who come mainly from Italy and other countries in southern and eastern Europe.

Languages.

The official languages ​​of Switzerland are German, French and Italian. Romansh, which is derived from Latin and also has national status, is spoken by approximately 1% of the country's population. German is the most common language: its local dialect - Alemannic (Schwitzerduch) - is used by 73% of Swiss citizens and 64% of the country's population. French is spoken approx. 19% of the population, predominantly in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Friborg and Valais. Italian is spoken by approx. 4% of Swiss citizens (mainly in the canton of Ticino), and including foreign workers - 8% of the country's population. Romansh is spoken only in the mountainous canton of Graubünden.

Religion.

In the late 1990s, 46% of the Swiss population were Catholics, 40% were Protestants. The proportion of Protestants declined after World War II due to the influx of foreign workers, predominantly Catholics. As a result of a national referendum in 1973, two articles of the constitution were repealed, which prohibited the activities of the Jesuit order and the formation of religious orders.

Confessional differences in Switzerland do not always coincide with linguistic boundaries. Among the Protestants one can find both French-speaking Calvinists and German-speaking followers of Zwingli. The centers of German-speaking Protestantism are Zurich, Bern and Appenzell. The majority of French-speaking Protestants live in the canton of Geneva and the neighboring cantons of Vaud and Neuchâtel. Catholics predominate in central Switzerland around the city of Lucerne, in most of the French-speaking cantons of Friborg and Valais, and in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino. There are small Jewish communities in Zurich, Basel and Geneva.

Population.

In 2004 the population of Switzerland was 7450 thousand. people and was concentrated mainly in the lowland areas. Large industrial centers - Zurich, Basel and Geneva - are characterized by the highest population density. The largest cities in the country (population in thousands in 1997): Zurich (339), Geneva (173), Basel (171), Bern (124), Lausanne (114), Winterthur (87), St. Gallen (71) and Lucerne (58).

In July 2011 the population was 7,639,961, population growth - 0.21% data for 2011), infant mortality - 4.08 deaths/1,000 births.

STATE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

Federalism and Democracy.

The basic principles of the Swiss constitution of 1874 are federalism and democracy. Article 3 of the constitution guarantees to the 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons into which Switzerland is divided all the rights of self-government, with the exception of those that are the prerogative of the federal government. These include the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace, the signing of international treaties and the entry into alliances, training, the material support of the armed forces and the management of them, the regulation of foreign trade. The federal government and the cantons have the right to impose taxes. In addition, the federal government exercises control over communications, higher education, and labor.

The adoption of the principle of federalism played a significant role in uniting the very heterogeneous canton states into the first all-Swiss federal state in 1848. Over time, the federal government began to more actively influence all aspects of the life of the country. Nevertheless, the Swiss still feel a strong attachment to their native cantons and their traditions.

Until 1971, Switzerland was one of the few countries in the world where women did not have the right to vote at the national level. In February 1971, the male electorate approved a constitutional amendment that gave the country's women the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. At the cantonal level, women's suffrage has dragged on: in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, women finally won the right to vote only in 1991.

In voting rights, the Swiss constitution also includes mandatory referendums on all constitutional amendments, popular initiatives to put forward such amendments, and legislative referendums on certain laws and treaties. The same rights, often in conjunction with legislative initiative, apply at the cantonal and local levels. In addition, in some cantons, direct democracy has been preserved in the form of a general assembly of residents (Landsgemeinde): this is a system of direct participation of all voters of the canton or locality in the approval of certain laws and the election of officials. Following a referendum held in March 1991, the voting age for federal elections was lowered from 20 to 18.

Political system.

The main bodies of the Swiss Confederation are the Federal Council, the Federal Assembly and the Federal Court. The executive body is the federal council of seven members elected by parliament for a term of four years. The only formal limitation on the composition of this body is that only one deputy can be elected from each canton. However, in fact, the composition of the council is strictly limited by tradition: for example, it must necessarily represent the main geographical regions of the country and two of the language groups (French and Italian). Since 1959, the composition of the council has, as far as possible, reflected the influence of the main political parties. Each year, one of the members of the council is elected President of Switzerland, but this position is not vested with special powers.

The legislative body of Switzerland - the federal assembly - consists of two chambers: the council of cantons, to which two representatives are elected from each canton and one from each half-canton, and a national council of 200 deputies, elected in proportion to the population of the cantons. The Assembly is elected for a term of four years. It has the usual legislative powers, but some laws must be approved by popular referendum.

The Federal Court of Switzerland is located in Lausanne, the rest of the main government bodies are in Bern. The federal court functions as the country's supreme court, although it cannot declare federal laws unconstitutional. There are no lower federal courts, since the cantonal courts are responsible for the application of federal laws at the lower levels. The federal court is composed of 26–28 judges and 11–13 jurors, sitting in separate rooms, depending on the nature of the case. The members of the court are elected by the federal assembly for a term of six years.

At the cantonal level, executive power is exercised by a state or government council, which consists of 5 to 11 members, headed by the president (Landmann). Council members are elected by the people of the cantons for a term of 4 years (except Friborg, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden and Appenzell-Innerrhoden) and in some smaller cantons work on a voluntary basis. Most cantons have a single legislature - a grand council, land council, or canton council, also elected for a four-year term. The legal bodies of the canton are represented by courts of two or three levels, depending on the size of the canton. Most of the local features of Swiss justice were eliminated with the introduction of a unified national code of civil, commercial and criminal law in 1942.

Political parties.

Switzerland has a multi-party system. On the right wing stands the Christian Democratic People's Party (formerly the Conservative Social Christian or Conservative Catholic). She sees her main task in defending the teachings and institutions of the Roman Catholic Church and in upholding the rights of the cantons. On the left is the Social Democratic (or Socialist) Party, which advocates broad social reforms, including greater state participation in the country's economic life, but respecting the partnership between the state and private enterprise. At the center of the political spectrum is the Radical Democratic Party of Switzerland. She was truly radical by the standards of the 19th century when she set the policy of the country. In modern conditions, this party has become relatively conservative.

Each of the three parties holds about a fifth of all seats in the national council. This balance of power is maintained from election to election, which provides Switzerland with political harmony and stability. Since 1959, each of these parties has held two of the seven seats in the Federal Council, and the remaining seat is occupied by a representative of the largest of the other parties, the Swiss People's Party (formerly the Party of Peasants, Craftsmen and Burghers). Other smaller parties include the Greens, the Union of Independents, the Liberal Party and the Freedom Party (formerly the Motorist Party). The latter, formed in 1985, defends the rights of car drivers and advocates for the restriction of immigration.

Military establishment

Switzerland are based on the national militia system. Military service is universal and compulsory for all men between the ages of 20 and 50, with periodic fees. In the mid-1990s, in the event of full mobilization, the Swiss army would have numbered 625 thousand people. The country's air force consists of 250 combat units. There are no soldiers among the professional military personnel: there are 1,600 officers and sergeants who serve as instructors.

Switzerland as an international center.

Switzerland adheres to the traditional policy of neutrality and therefore does not join the UN. However, it takes part in the work of all specialized organizations of the UN; Geneva is home to the headquarters of the World Trade Organization, the International Labor Organization, the World Health Organization, the International Telecommunications Union, the World Meteorological Organization, and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Other organizations based in Switzerland are the World Council of Churches and the International Red Cross founded by the Swiss Henri Dunant.

ECONOMY

General characteristics.

Switzerland is poor natural resources except for hydropower. Nevertheless, it is a prosperous country, in many respects the richest in Europe, primarily due to the high development of manufacturing and services (tourism is especially important). During the period 1950–1990, the economy developed steadily, unemployment was kept low, inflation was kept in check by the Swiss National Bank, and the downturns in business activity were short-lived. The economic recession that engulfed most of Europe in the early 1990s also affected Switzerland: unemployment reached its highest level since 1939, and inflation rose. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the country remained still very high. In 1997, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Switzerland was nominally estimated at 365 billion Swiss francs, in reality - at 316 billion. In terms of per capita - 51.4 thousand Swiss francs (nominally) and 44.5 thousand (real).

Labor resources.

In 1996, about 28% of the working population of Switzerland were employed in industry (in 1996 it was estimated at 3.8 million people), in agriculture and forestry - 5% and 6% - in the service sector. Of these last ca. 23% worked in hotels, restaurants, wholesale and retail trade, approx. 11% - in banking and credit, insurance and entrepreneurship, approx. 6% in the transport and communications system. The unemployment rate in Switzerland in 1997 was 5.2%. In the same year, there were 936 thousand foreign workers who had a temporary residence permit in the country, of which 30% were Italians and 15% were Yugoslavs. In the early 1960s, the share of foreigners in the labor force was as high as 30%, but at the end of the same decade it dropped to 15% as a result of restrictions imposed by the Swiss government. During the 1990s, foreign workers accounted for over 25% of all employed. They do most of the unskilled work, many of them in construction, metallurgy and engineering.

Industry.

The high standard of living of the Swiss population was achieved thanks to the large-scale development of various industries. The Swiss watch industry has won world fame, concentrated mainly in the western part of the country (La Chaux-de-Fonds, Neuchâtel, Geneva) and Schaffhausen, Thun, Bern and Olten. In the 1970s, due to competition from East Asian countries, this sector of the Swiss economy experienced a severe crisis, but in the 1980s it was overcome by the production of inexpensive electronic watches.

The textile industry, the oldest in the country, was for many years the most important industry. However, during the Second World War there was a shift in favor of metallurgy and the chemical industry, and throughout the 1980s the production of machinery and equipment developed rapidly. In the 1990s, the production of chemical products and medicines, scientific and measuring instruments, optical instruments, machine tools and foodstuffs, especially cheese and chocolate, played an important role. Footwear, paper, leather and rubber products stood out among other industrial products.

International trade.

Switzerland's highly developed foreign trade is based on the export of industrial products such as machinery, watches, medicines, electronic equipment, chemicals and clothing. In 1991, the share of manufacturing products accounted for approx. 90% of the country's export earnings. Structure of exports in 1997: 20% - machinery and equipment; 9% - electrical machinery and equipment; 9% - products of organic chemistry; 9% - pharmaceutical products; 6% - precision instruments and watches, 6% - precious metals, 4% - artificial materials.

The Swiss foreign trade balance usually had a deficit, which was traditionally covered by the import of foreign capital, income from the export of capital, income from foreign tourism, insurance and transportation. In the mid-1990s, thanks to improvements in imports, a small trade surplus was achieved for the first time: in 1997, the value of exports was 105.1 billion Swiss francs and imports, 103.1 billion.

Leading foreign trade partners of Switzerland are Germany, USA, Italy, France and Great Britain. Switzerland was one of the founding countries of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1959, in 1972 Swiss voters approved a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community (now the European Union, EU), in 1977 all duties on manufactured goods were abolished. In 1992, Switzerland applied for EU membership, but later that year, Swiss voters voted against the country's entry into the European Economic Area (EEA). This project was aimed at facilitating the free movement of labor, goods, services and capital in 7 EFTA countries and 12 EU countries. After that, Switzerland concluded an agreement with the EU on limited participation in the EEA; as a result, Switzerland has reduced duties on goods transported through its territory by EU member states.

Agriculture.

About 12% of the area of ​​Switzerland is used for arable land and another 28% for extensive cattle breeding and dairy production. About a third of the country's territory is occupied by unproductive land (at least unsuitable for agriculture), especially in the cantons of Uri, Valais and Graubünden, and a quarter is covered with forests. Not surprisingly, 40% of food products have to be imported. At the same time, Switzerland provides itself with wheat, meat and dairy products are produced in excess. The main centers of agriculture are concentrated in the cantons of Bern, Vaud, Zurich, Friborg and Aargau. The main crops are wheat, potatoes and sugar beets. In 1996, there were 1,772,000 cattle in the country (of which about 40% were dairy cows), 1,580,000 pigs, 442,000 sheep, and 52,000 goats. A large timber processing industry works for the domestic and foreign markets. In recent years, however, Switzerland's forests have been hit hard by air pollution, forcing the government to impose strict controls on car exhaust emissions.

Energy.

In 1996, 54% of energy in Switzerland was generated by hydroelectric power plants built on numerous mountain rivers. Five nuclear power plants meet most of the country's energy needs. Nevertheless, the use of nuclear energy remains in question: in 1990, Swiss voters approved a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants.

Switzerland has long been a major oil importer, but natural gas imports beginning in 1974 and energy conservation measures have led to a reduction in oil imports. In 1991, crude oil came to Switzerland mainly from Libya and Great Britain, while refined products came from Germany, the Benelux countries and France. The main suppliers of natural gas are Germany and the Netherlands.

Transport and communication.

Switzerland has a highly developed transport system. The Rhine, the largest navigable water artery, is navigable within Switzerland only on the Basel-Rheinfelden section, 19 km long. A large river port was put into operation in Basel. In the 1990s, its annual cargo turnover was 9 million tons. The Rhine-Rhone Canal is also of great importance for the transportation of industrial goods.

The length of the railway network in Switzerland in 1995 was 5719 km. The railways are almost completely nationalized and electrified and are among the best in Europe. Since they were laid in conditions of highly rugged terrain, the construction of numerous bridges and tunnels was required. In 1995 there were over 71,380 km of first-class highways in Switzerland. The car park in 1996 reached almost 3.3 million, i.e. There was one car for every two people in the country. In 1964, the Grand Saint Bernard tunnel was opened, the first road tunnel in the Alps. Built in 1980, the Gotthard Tunnel is currently the longest road tunnel in the world (16.4 km).

Switzerland is the only landlocked country with a significant navy. In 1941, she purchased several ocean-going ships to carry important goods during World War II, and continued to expand her fleet after the war. In 1985, the cargo turnover of its merchant fleet was estimated at 225.4 million registered tons. The fleet includes many modern ships, designed to transport from 6 thousand to 10 thousand tons of cargo, as well as several tankers.

The federal government owns all telephone and telegraph lines, as well as the radio and television network. In the 1980s, a major modernization program for telecommunications systems was implemented.

Monetary system and banks.

Switzerland is one of the most important financial centers in the world. Its banking system far exceeds the volume required for domestic transactions. There are two interconnected banking systems: the state system, including the Swiss National Bank and cantonal banks, and the private banking system. The Swiss National Bank, which began operations in 1907, is the only financial institution that issues national currency. The main monetary unit - the Swiss franc - is one of the most stable currencies in the world. The National Bank is controlled by the federal authorities and has a great influence on the economic policy of the confederation.

The Swiss private banking system in the 1990s consisted of several large commercial banks that were part of the Big Four: Schweizerischer Bankverein (SBF), Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft (SBG), Schweizerische Creditanstalt and Schweizerische Volskbank. In 1997, the "big four" became the "big three" after the merger of the SBG with the SBF. There are also 28 cantonal banks, hundreds of regional and savings banks, financial companies and other banks, 20 of which are owned by foreigners. The role of foreign banks is increasing: in the late 1990s, they owned more than 10% of Swiss bank holdings.

Depositors have long been attracted to Swiss banks: in accordance with the Swiss banking law of 1934, banks are prohibited from providing information about their customers without their consent. Under pressure from other governments, especially the United States, regulations have been passed to allow disclosure of secrecy of deposits, especially when depositors are under investigation for currency crimes such as counterfeiting and trade in confidential information. After much debate, the Swiss government in the late 1990s also allowed the secrecy of deposits in connection with the search for funds belonging to the victims of the Nazi genocide.

The Swiss Stock Exchange is one of the most active international stock and bond markets. The stock exchange in Zurich is the largest in continental Europe. Switzerland also plays an important role in the global insurance market, especially in the commercial insurance sector. Some of the leading Swiss insurance companies derive more than half of their income from operations on the foreign market.

Tourism.

The tourism industry is one of Switzerland's vital sources of income. In 1996, more than 18 million people stayed in Switzerland for holidays, mainly from Germany, Great Britain, France, the USA, the Benelux countries and Scandinavia.

The state budget.

The Swiss budget is usually more or less balanced, but in the early 1990s, due to the recession of the economy, the expenditure part of the budget increased. In 1997, expenditures were estimated at 44.1 billion Swiss francs and revenues at 38.9 billion. The main sources of income were income taxes, turnover taxes and import duties.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

Universal primary and secondary education is administered by the cantonal authorities, so the age limit for compulsory education fluctuates. Most children attend school between the ages of 7 and 15 or 16. Almost all public schools are free. There are practically no illiterates in the country. Switzerland has many private schools that accept students from all over the world. There are 9 universities in the country - in Basel, Zurich, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Friborg, Neuchâtel, Lugano and St. Gallen. All of them are under the control of the cantons. There are many foreign students studying at universities. There are several other higher educational institutions. The total number of students in 1997/1998 was 93,000.

The development of culture.

Switzerland is a country with a rich cultural heritage. She gave the world many outstanding artists, writers and scientists. These are Nikolaus Manuel (1484-1530), a talented Renaissance artist, and the physician Paracelsus (c. 1493-1541), who is considered the first natural scientist of the Modern Age. The theologian Nikolai Flyuessky (1417–1487), who was canonized in 1947, received wide recognition. Switzerland is associated with the activities of the great religious reformers - Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) and John Calvin (1509-1564), as well as prominent psychologists Carl Gustav Jung (1895-1961) and Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Established Swiss artists include Heinrich Fussli (1742–1825), Ferdinand Hodler (1853–1918) and Paul Klee (1879–1940). Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), sculptor Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965), educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) were also Swiss-born.

Music and dancing.

Swiss musical folklore includes song and instrumental music. A specific song genre of the Alpine highlanders is yodel, characterized by rapid transitions from the chest low voice register to the high head register (falsetto) and vice versa. Famous Swiss composers are Otmar Schök (1886–1957), Frank Martin (1890–1974) and Willy Burckhard (1900–1955). Arthur Honegger (1892-1955), who belonged to the modern French school, parents were Swiss, and he began to study music in Zurich.

In some cities of Switzerland, primarily in Zurich, Basel and Geneva, there are ballet troupes. In 1989 the innovative choreographer Maurice Béjart moved with his dance company from Brussels to Lausanne. Expressive traditional folk dances are shown at national and regional festivals held annually in Switzerland.

Literature.

Swiss literature has a rich tradition. Johann Bodmer (1698–1783) and Johann Brettinger (1701–1776) influenced German literature. The famous writer Germaine de Stael (1766–1817) had Swiss parents. The writer and educator Johann Rudolf Wies (1781–1830) is best known as the publisher who published Swiss Robinson- a book written by his father, Johann David Wies (1743-1818). Johanna Spyri (1827–1901) became famous as the author of the classic children's book Heidi.

Other notable Swiss writers include Jeremiah Gotthelf, Gottfried Keller, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer, Rodolphe Töpffer and Karl Spitteler. Swiss writers of the 20th century Albert Steffen and Charles Ferdinand Ramyu (1878-1947), Max Frisch and Friedrich Dürrenmatt created many wonderful works. Peider Lancel, writing in Romansh, gained a reputation as an outstanding poet. Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt is known for his work Italian culture during the Renaissance, and Johann von Müller (1752-1809, he earned the honorary nickname of "Swiss Tacitus") - by labor Swiss history.

STORY

Creation of the Swiss Confederation.

Among the Celtic tribes that inhabited the territory of Switzerland in prehistoric times, the Helvetii stood out, who became allies of the Romans after they were defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bibractus in 58 BC. e. In 15 BC Rets were also conquered by Rome. In the next three centuries, Roman influence contributed to the development of the culture of the population and its Romanization.

In the 4th–5th centuries AD The territory of present-day Switzerland was captured by the Germanic tribes of the Alemanni and Burgundians. In the 6th–7th centuries it became part of the kingdom of the Franks and in the 8th-9th centuries. was ruled by Charlemagne and his successors. The subsequent fate of these lands is closely connected with the history of the Holy Roman Empire. After the collapse of the Carolingian empire, they were captured by the Swabian dukes in the 10th century, but they could not keep them under their rule, and the region broke up into separate fiefs. In the 12th-13th centuries. attempts were made to unite them under the rule of large feudal lords, such as the Zähringens, the founders of Bern and Friborg, and the Habsburgs. In 1264 the Habsburgs won a dominant position in eastern Switzerland. The Counts of Savoy were entrenched in the west.

The Habsburgs encountered strong opposition when they tried to consolidate their holdings by abolishing the privileges of some local communities. At the center of this resistance were the peasants who lived in the mountain valleys of Schwyz (hence the name of the country Switzerland), Uri and Unterwalden. These forested cantons, located along the strategically important road through the St. Gotthard Pass, benefited from the struggle between the Hohenstaufen emperors and the papacy. In 1231 Uri and in 1240 Schwyz received the rights of the imperial territories of the Holy Roman Empire, freeing themselves from dependence on petty feudal lords. After the death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250, the empire entered a period of decline, marked by civil war during the Great Interregnum of 1250–1273. The Habsburgs, who did not recognize the rights of Uri and Schwyz, tried to conquer Schwyz in 1245-1252. Uri and Unterwalden, who entered into a temporary alliance, came to his aid. In August 1291, the Swiss communities entered into a permanent defensive alliance among themselves and signed a treaty known as the "Eternal Alliance", the first documented evidence of cooperation between the forest cantons. This year starts official history Swiss state. Part of the traditional legend about these events, associated with the name of William Tell, is not confirmed in historical documents.

Growth and expansion of the confederation.

The first proof of the strength of the confederation was given in 1315, when the highlanders of the forested cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden faced the superior forces of the Habsburgs and their allies. At the Battle of Morgarten they won what is considered one of the most important victories in Swiss history. This victory encouraged other communities to join the confederation as well. In 1332-1353 the cities of Lucerne, Zurich and Bern, the rural communities of Glarus and Zug entered into separate agreements with the three united cantons, forming a number of confederations. Although these agreements did not have a common basis, they were able to ensure the main thing - the independence of each of the participants. Having been defeated in the battles of Sempach in 1386 and Nefels in 1388, the Habsburgs were finally forced to recognize the independence of the cantons, united in a confederation.

At the beginning of the 15th century the members of the confederation felt strong enough to go on the offensive. In the course of numerous wars and campaigns against the Austrian Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dukes of Savoy, Burgundy and Milan, and the French King Francis I, the Swiss gained a reputation for magnificent warriors. They were feared by enemies and respected by allies. During the "heroic age" of Swiss history (1415-1513), the territory of the confederation expanded by adding new lands in Aargau, Thurgau, Vaud, and also south of the Alps. 5 new cantons were created. In 1513-1798 Switzerland became a confederation of 13 cantons. In addition to them, the confederation included lands that entered into an alliance with one or more cantons. There was no permanent central body: All-Union Diets were periodically convened, where only full-fledged cantons had the right to vote. There was no all-union administration, army and finance, and this situation remained until the French Revolution.

From the Reformation to the French Revolution.

In 1523 Huldrych Zwingli openly challenged the Roman Catholic Church and led a religious reform movement in Zurich. He was supported by the inhabitants of a number of other cities in northern Switzerland, but in rural areas he met with resistance. In addition, there were differences with the radical Anabaptist wing of his followers in Zurich itself. The Zwinglian current of Protestantism subsequently merged with the current of John Calvin from Geneva into the Swiss Reformed Church. Since the cantons of central Switzerland remained Catholic, a split along religious lines was inevitable. After short religious clashes, an approximate balance was established between the two religions. In 1648 Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire was officially recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia.

Political life of Switzerland in the 18th century. was calm. The Bernese naturalist and poet Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777), the historian I. von Müller, and also the philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, born in Geneva, and the great pedagogue and humanist from Zurich, I. G. Pestalozzi, became famous in the “age of Enlightenment”. At this time, a stream of foreign guests rushed to Switzerland, among them Voltaire, Gibbon and Goethe.

Revolution and restoration of the Confederation.

The French Revolution had a profound effect on Switzerland, both politically and philosophically. In 1798 French troops invaded the country and occupied it. The French granted the conquered cantons a constitution that replaced the loose federation with the "one and indivisible Helvetic Republic". The revolutionary ideas of democracy, civil liberties and centralized power led to the creation of a strong central government for the first time in Swiss history. The constitution of 1798, created on the basis of the constitution of the first French Republic, granted all Swiss equal rights before the law and a code of civil liberties. However, it encroached on traditional federalism, and many Swiss did not want to recognize it. The struggle between the federalists, who opposed the new system, and the centralists, who supported it, subsided temporarily when Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 granted the republic a constitution known as the Mediation Act. It restored many of the former privileges of the cantons and expanded the number of cantons from 13 to 19.

After the defeat of Napoleon, the cantons dissociated themselves from the regime imposed by the French and tried to revive the former confederation. After lengthy negotiations, a Union Treaty was drawn up, signed in September 1814. It proclaimed the union of 22 sovereign cantons, but did not indicate that they constituted one state. In the Declaration of the Congress of Vienna (March 1815) and the Treaty of Paris (November 1815), the Great Powers recognized the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland.

Civil war and new constitution.

Over the next three decades, liberal sentiment grew in Switzerland. In response to the actions of the radicals in the Union Sejm and in some cantons (the closing of the monasteries in Aargau, the expulsion of the Jesuits), seven conservative Catholic cantons formed the defensive alliance of the Sonderbund. In 1847, the Sejm by a small majority announced the dissolution of this association. The federal army under the leadership of General Guillaume Dufour was victorious in civil war before the European powers intervened.

As a result of the victory over the Sonderbund, a new constitution was adopted (1848). A balance was struck between the aspirations of the radical centralists and the conservative federalists. From a fragile union of canton states, Switzerland has become a single union state. A permanent executive body was created in the form of a federal council of seven members, elected by a legislative body from two chambers - the national council and the council of cantons. The federal government was empowered to issue money, regulate customs regulations and, most importantly, determine foreign policy. Bern was chosen as the federal capital. The revised constitution of 1874, with subsequent amendments, further strengthened the power of the federal government without jeopardizing the federal foundation of the Swiss state.

In the last decades of the 19th century Swiss industry developed, and the construction of railways began. Imported raw materials were processed into high-quality products, which then entered the world market.

Switzerland in World Wars.

With the outbreak of the First World War, a threat to the national unity of Switzerland arose: the French-speaking Swiss were mainly sympathetic to France, and the German-speaking - to Germany. The four-year mobilization laid a heavy burden on the country's economy, there was a shortage of industrial raw materials, unemployment was growing, and there was not enough food. General discontent resulted in mass strikes in November 1918.

In 1919 Geneva was chosen as the headquarters of the League of Nations. Switzerland became a member of this organization only after heated internal debates and after receiving guarantees of respect for its neutrality. The outbreak of World War II found the population of the country more united: few people in Switzerland welcomed Nazism. However, strategically, the position of the confederation was much more vulnerable, since it was surrounded by totalitarian powers.

Foreign policy.

With the end of World War II, the League of Nations ceased to exist. Switzerland decided not to join the newly created United Nations (UN) and acquired observer status, which allowed the European headquarters and several UN specialized organizations to be located in Geneva, including the International Labor Organization and the World Organization healthcare. Switzerland considered that the refusal to join the UN The best way maintain its independent position as a neutral country in a constantly changing balance of power on the world stage. This decision strengthened the position of Switzerland in international politics. This country is a member of several UN organizations: the International Court of Justice, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Switzerland provides significant assistance to developing countries.

Following a traditional policy of neutrality, Switzerland in the 1950s and early 1960s faced great difficulty in participating in various European integration plans. In 1948, she joined the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, but refrained from joining the European Economic Community (later the European Union, EU). The obvious political aims of this organization were unacceptable to Switzerland. However, it became one of the founding members of the European Free Trade Association in 1959, and in 1963 joined the Council of Europe, again demonstrating its interest in European cooperation. In 1972, a national referendum ratified a free trade agreement with the EU, according to which, by 1977, duties on all industrial products were gradually removed. In 1983, Switzerland became a full member of the Group of Ten, an association of the largest contributors to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Political and social changes.

In the 1960s, Switzerland faced a severe internal problem. Several French-speaking districts located in the Jura mountains in the canton of Bern demanded the formation of a new canton. This met with resistance from the German-speaking population of the region. Federal troops were sent there to prevent clashes. In the early 1970s, voters in the canton of Bern approved a referendum in the French-speaking districts on secession. As a result of a series of plebiscites held over a number of years, three of the seven districts and several border communities voted in favor of the creation of a new canton. This new canton was named Jura. The decision was then approved in a national referendum in 1978 and the new canton entered the confederation in 1979.

In the 1960s, there was marked tension over the issue of the large number of workers from countries Southern Europe who came to work in Switzerland. Despite the traditional international character of the country and the need for foreigners to participate in its economic life, many Swiss showed a hostile attitude towards migrants from southern Europe and considered them responsible for the country's internal problems, such as a lack of housing. Accordingly, the government introduced restrictions that drastically reduced the proportion of foreigners in the work force. The political movement, which demanded a further reduction in the number of foreign workers, did not achieve much support in the elections, but was able to organize referendums in 1970, 1974 and 1977 on constitutional amendments to limit the proportion of foreigners in the Swiss population. These proposals were not approved, but attempts to limit the presence of foreigners in Switzerland did not stop in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1982 voters rejected the government's proposal to liberalize the rules governing the stay of foreign workers and their families, and in 1987 immigration was even more restricted. In 1994, referendum participants approved a tightening of the law on the stay of foreigners. Nevertheless, the contingent of foreign workers remains large - 25% of the total number of employees. At the same time, the number of foreign nationals living in Switzerland has risen to around 1.4 million. Many of them are refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and developing countries.

In the mid-1980s, the Swiss government attempted to end the country's isolation and conclude a series of bilateral and multilateral agreements with EU countries. In a referendum in 1986, Swiss voters overwhelmingly rejected the government's proposal to join the UN, but six years later they voted for Switzerland's participation in the IMF and the World Bank. In December 1992, seven months after the government announced its intention to join the EU, the population rejected the proposal to join the European Economic Area, which since January 1994 included the countries of the European Free Trade Association with the EU in a single free trade area.

Switzerland's attitude towards the gradually strengthening EU remained a stumbling block for the country's foreign policy in the late 1990s. The 1995 elections revealed a growing polarization of voters on this issue. The greatest success was achieved, on the one hand, by the Social Democrats, who actively support integration, and on the other, by the right-wing Swiss People's Party, which opposes not only EU accession, but also participation in the European Economic Area and Switzerland's cooperation with other trading and political alliances. The decision in 1996 to allow the Swiss military to participate in the maneuvers and technological programs of the Partnership for Peace organization provoked violent protests in the country.

The controversy over the monetary contributions of the victims of the Nazi genocide.

In the late 1990s, the Swiss government was involved in an international dispute over the return by private Swiss banks of gold and other valuable property confiscated by Nazi Germany during World War II from victims of the genocide. Also discussed were the deposits and valuables placed by European Jews in Swiss banks before and during the war to keep them from being captured by the Nazis.

Immediately after the war, Switzerland agreed to return the stolen deposits to the victims and their heirs. However, in court cases that attracted much public attention in the mid-1990s, private plaintiffs and Jewish lawyer groups claimed that Switzerland had defaulted on its obligations and accused Swiss banks of preventing heirs from accessing "frozen" accounts. deceased contributors.

Since 1996, American local and federal politicians and organizations have launched a campaign for the return of the so-called. Nazi gold, and many US municipalities, including New York City, threatened to impose economic sanctions on Swiss banks if the latter refused to bail out the plaintiffs. In August 1998, the Schweizerische Creditanstalt banking group and the SBF agreed to pay $1.25 billion in compensation to the victims of the genocide and their heirs. After that, the threats of sanctions were stopped.

The controversy damaged the international prestige of Switzerland and caused a wave of indignation in that country. US media and European states Swiss bankers and diplomats were often presented as extremely unsympathetic people who showed indifference to the claims of the victims of the genocide. Public attention was also drawn to the aid that came to Nazi Germany from Switzerland. Despite the neutrality of the country, Swiss industrialists supplied raw materials and industrial products to Nazi Germany. Many Swiss politicians felt they were being portrayed as villains by US officials; the Swiss were of the opinion that the agreement reached was a capitulation to outside pressure, humiliating for the nation as a whole.

Fight for women's rights.

The women's suffrage movement, first successful in the French-speaking cantons in the late 1950s, reached its main goal only in 1971, when women won the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. However, in a number of cantons, women were prevented for a long time from exercising their voting rights in local elections. In 1991, in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, the last territory in Switzerland to oppose the emancipation of women, they received the right to participate in the annual meetings of voters.

The next step was the adoption in 1981 of a constitutional amendment guaranteeing equal rights for women. In 1984, Elisabeth Kopp became the first woman to be elected to the federal council. In 1985, women were given equal rights in the family (before that, the husband was considered the head of the family, which allowed him to unilaterally manage family finances and not allow his wife to work). In 1991, the council of the city of Bern decided that its composition should not be more than 60% of the same sex.

Measures to protect the environment.

The transit position of Switzerland in the system of meridional European transport carried out by heavy vehicles has complicated ecological situation on the mountain roads countries. In addition, exhaust fumes contributed to the destruction of forests that protect the mountain villages of Switzerland from avalanches and mudflows. To reduce exhaust emissions from motor vehicles, the Swiss government introduced road tolls in 1985, a weight limit for cars was set (28 tons), traffic was limited at night and on weekends. In a referendum in 1994 voters approved the decision that by 2004 foreign commercial goods would have to be transported through Switzerland only by rail.

Economic development.

Until the end of the 1980s, Switzerland had a positive budget balance. Its economy was characterized by low inflation, low unemployment and low interest rates. In 1988 and 1989 the budgets were reduced with an excess of the revenue side of 900 million and 300 million dollars, respectively, unemployment in 1987 reached a record low of 0.7%. However, rising inflation (6% in 1991) prompted the Swiss National Bank to raise interest rates and limit the issue of money. In the early 1990s, there was a recession in the country's economy. Although the gross domestic product declined by less than 1% between 1991 and 1993, the unemployment rate reached 3.6% in 1992 and 4.5% at the end of 1993, mainly due to the reduction in the number of jobs in construction and engineering. In 1994, there were signs of an economic recovery, especially in international financial services, but unemployment in manufacturing and other industries continued to rise. In 1997, the situation improved due to increased exports, demand revived, investment increased, but investment in construction continued to decline.

Economic indicators. GDP - $326.5 billion (data for 2010), GDP per capita - $42,900 (data for 2010), inflation rate - 0.7% (data for 2010), industrial production growth - 2.4% (data for 2010). The main types of agricultural products: grain, fruits, vegetables, meat, eggs.

Switzerland at the end of the 20th century - early 21st century

In December 1998, Ruth Dreyfuss, the first female president, was elected President of the Swiss Confederation.

A year later, in 1999, the Swiss parliament re-elected all seven members of the federal council, depriving the right-wing Swiss People's Party of its seat on the council, and thus managed to maintain the coalition and alignment of forces established since 1959, which has been ruling since 1959.

In January 2000, Adolf Augi was elected president. But already at the beginning of 2001, thanks to the rotational system, Leuenberger Moritz, a representative of the Social Democratic Party, became the new president. In the same year, in a referendum, the majority of voters (about 77%) voted against the initiative to join the European Union.

In March 2002, at the last referendum, 55% of the population voted for Switzerland's accession to the United Nations, and in September 2002 Switzerland became the 190th member of the UN. In 2005, the people of Switzerland voted in favor of joining the Schengen area.

In 2003, parliamentary elections were held, and the right-wing People's Party of Switzerland won 55 seats in the Federal Council, while the center parties suffered a crushing defeat. This victory was reflected in the balance of power in the new council, and another seat was added for a People's Party representative. Thus, now the Federal Council has 8 members. In 2007, the People's Party again won the general election, and increased the number of seats in parliament to 62, the Social Democrats were forced to give up their positions. The cornerstone of the policy of the People's Party is a sharply negative attitude towards foreigners. In campaign materials, the immigrant parties were directly referred to as "drug dealers" and "criminals". Although immigration provided the country with labor resources.
List of presidents from 2002 to 2011: K. Filliger (2002, Radical Democratic Party), P. Kuspen (2003, RDP), Joseph Deiss (2004, Christian Democratic People's Party), S. Schmid (2005, Conservative Democratic Party) , M. Leuenberger (2006, Social Democratic Party), M. Calmy-Re (2007, SDP), P. Kuschpen (2008, RDP), Hans-Rudolf Merz (2009, Free Democratic Party), D. Leuthard (2010 , CDPP), M. Calmy-Re (2011, PSD).

On October 23, 2011, federal elections were held for the National Council (lower house of parliament) and the Council of Cantons (upper house of parliament). The Swiss People's Party received the majority of votes in the National Council. However, they received 7 fewer seats in parliament (25.9% of the year) than in the last elections. The following also entered the lower house: the Social Democratic Party (18.1%), the Free Democratic Party (15%) and the Christian Democratic Party (12%), the Green Party (8.3%), the Green Liberal Party (5.3 %), the Bourgeois Democratic Party (5.2%).

Literature:

Sabelnikov L.V. Switzerland. Economy and foreign trade. M., 1962
Mogutin V.B. Switzerland: big business in a small country. M., 1975
Dragunov G.P. Switzerland: history and modernity. M., 1978
Democracy Handbook: The Functioning of a Democratic State: The Case of Switzerland. M., 1994
Schaffhauser R. Fundamentals of Swiss communal law on the example of the communal law of the canton of St. Gallen. St. Petersburg, 1996