Works of Russian geographers and travelers of the 19th century. Russian travelers of the first half of the 19th century

The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half 19th century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.

The beginning of expeditions into the depths of Asia was laid Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) geographer, statistician, botanist. He made a number of trips to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.

The Russian Geographical Society was associated with the activities of other Russian travelers- P. A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.

P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayans and the Vitim Plateau.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) he made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia. He several times crossed Mongolia, Northern China, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, visited Tibet. He died en route, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such “ ascetics are needed like the sun». « Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society, he added, they excite, console and ennoble ... If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond any price.».

overseas Russian travels scientists in the second half of the 19th century. become more targeted. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the life, culture, and customs of local peoples. This direction, the beginning of which in the XVIII century. put S. P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888). He made his first travels to the Canary Islands and North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of Pacific islands, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast). The Russian scientist won the trust and love of the locals. Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, again returned to " Maclay coast". The descriptions of life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania, compiled by the scientist, were largely published only after his death.

World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

19th century became the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by the Russian people. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - the discoverers and travelers of the XVII-XVI11 centuries. they enriched the understanding of the Russians about the world around them, cno-j contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. For the first time, Russia realized an old dream: Russian ships entered the World Ocean.

In 1803, at the direction of Alexander I, an expedition was undertaken on two ships, Nadezhda and Neva, to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. It was the first Russian round-the-world expedition that lasted three years. It was headed by corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (1770-1846). It was one of the largest navigators and geographers of the century. During the expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of about. Sakhalin. Many interesting observations were left by the participants of the trip not only about the Far East, but also about the territories through which they sailed. The commander of the Neva, Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837), discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of interesting data was collected by the expedition members about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. The results of the observations were reported to the Academy of Sciences. They were so significant that I.F. Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials were the basis * published in the early 1920s. "Atlas of the South Seas". In 1845, Admiral Kruzenshtern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society and brought up a whole galaxy of Russian navigators and explorers.

One of the students and followers of Krusenstern was Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition, and after her return he commanded the Minerva frigate on the Black Sea. In 1819-1821. he was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on the sloops Vostok (which he commanded) and Mirny (Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev was appointed commander). The expedition was drafted by Kruzenshtern. Its main goal was "the acquisition of complete knowledge about our globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole." On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time to anyone, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After stopping in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands in the Tuamotu archipelago, called the Russian Islands. Each of them received the name of a famous military or naval leader of our country (Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Wittgenstein, Yermolov, etc.). After a new stop in Sydney, the expedition again moved to Antarctica, where Fr. Peter I and the coast of Alexander I. In July 1821 she returned to Kronstadt. For 751 days of navigation, Russian ships covered a path of about 50 thousand miles. In addition to the geographical discoveries made, valuable ethnographic and biological collections, data from observations of the waters of the World Ocean and the ice sheets of a continent new to mankind were also brought. Later, both leaders of the expedition heroically proved themselves in the military service of the Fatherland. A M.P. Lazarev after the defeat of the Turks at the Battle of Navarino (1827) was appointed chief commander of the Black Sea Fleet and Russian ports on the Black Sea coast.

Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy (1813-1876) became the largest explorer of the Russian Far East in the middle of the century. Having since the XVIII century. vast possessions in the Far East, Russia never succeeded in their development. Even the exact limits of the eastern possessions of the country were not known. Meanwhile, England began to show attention to Kamchatka and other Russian territories. This forced Nicholas I, at the suggestion of the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov (Amursky) to equip in 1848 a special expedition to the east. Captain Nevelskoy was placed at its head. In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855), he managed, bypassing Sakhalin from the north, to discover a number of new, previously unknown territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur, where in 1850 he founded the Nikolaev Post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelsky's travels were of great importance: for the first time it was proved that Sakhalin is not at all connected to the mainland, but is an island and the Tatar Strait is precisely a strait, and not a bay, as La Perouse, who had been in these places, believed.

Evfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin (1804-1883) in 1822-1825 traveled around the world and left to posterity a description of "much of what he saw. In 1852-1855, during the expedition led by him on the frigate Pallada, the islands of Rimsky-Korsakov were discovered. He became the first Russian who managed to visit Japan closed from Europeans and even sign a treaty there (1855).

The result of the expeditions of Nevelsky and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the recognition by Europe of the existence of the Primorsky region (Nikolaevsk) and the fact of its belonging to Russia.

In the first half of the XIX century. other discoveries were made. Round-the-world expeditions have become traditional: V.M. Golovnin; on the sloops "Diana" (1807-1811) and "Kamchatka" (1817-1819), F.P. Litke on the sloop-of-war "Senyavin" (1826-1829, based on the materials of which more than 50 maps were compiled), etc.

Exceptionally useful and necessary information on Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands was held in 1839-1849; I.G. Voznesensky.

In 1809 A.E. Kolodkin began an intensive study of the Caspian, which ended 17 years later with the compilation of the first Atlas of the Caspian Sea.

In 1848, the study of the Northern Urals (up to the Kara Sea) was carried out by the expedition of E.K. Hoffman and M.A. Kovalsky.

Expeditions to the north of Siberia, carried out in 1842-1845, were crowned with the coolest results. A.F. Middendorf (who first described the Taimyr Territory).

P.A. Chikhachev discovered the Kuznetsk coal basin.

The successes of Russian travelers were so capacious that it was necessary to create special institutions for the generalization and use of the results obtained. The most important among them was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845.

Fanatical people these scientists, researchers. How do you read what you had to go through and experience in distant geographical expeditions, that you wonder - why did they need it? Part of the answer probably still applies to these people themselves, like Fyodor Konyukhov - it's in their blood. And the other part, of course, is serving the Motherland, the Fatherland, the country. I think they fully understood that they were increasing the greatness, wealth and prosperity of their state. If not for them, a citizen of another country would have done this and the maps of the World might have looked different.

Here are some things you might not know...

The 18th century was marked in Russian geographical history primarily by the Great Northern Expedition. Started in December 1724 on the personal decree of Peter I (the First Kamchatka expedition of Vitus Bering), it continued in 1733-1743, already under Anna Ioannovna. The expedition consisted of seven independent missions moving along the Arctic coast of Siberia to the shores of North America and Japan. The result of this large-scale project was the publication of the first complete geographical map of the Russian Empire.

Vasily Pronchishchev. Great Northern Expedition. 1735-1736

One of the members of the Great Northern Expedition. A legendary personality among Russian polar explorers. Legendary and romantic. Midshipman. He studied at the Naval Academy together with Semyon Chelyuskin and Khariton Laptev, who also participated in this expedition under him. And earlier, in 1722, he took part in the Persian campaign of Peter. And outwardly, by the way, he was very similar to the emperor.

Together with him, his wife Tatyana took part in the expedition. For that time, it was so incredible that her presence on the ship was unofficial

During the Great Northern Expedition, Pronchishchev’s detachment, consisting of 50 people, leaving Yakutsk in June 1735 on the Yakutsk sailing and rowing boat, made an accurate map of the channel and mouth of the Lena River, a map of the coast of the Laptev Sea and discovered many islands lying north of the Taimyr Peninsula. In addition, the Pronchishchev group moved north much further than other detachments: up to 77 ° 29 ′ N. sh.

But Pronchishchev entered the history of the development of the Arctic also thanks to a romantic story. Together with him, his wife Tatyana took part in the expedition. For that time, it was so incredible that her presence on the ship was unofficial. In August 1736, during one of his sorties to the polar islands, Pronchishchev broke his leg and soon died from a complication caused by an open fracture. His wife survived him by only a few days. It is said that she died of grief. They were buried in one grave on Cape Tumul near the mouth of the Olenyok River (today the village of Ust-Olenyok is located here).

Navigator Semyon Chelyuskin became the new head of the detachment, and after he went with a sledge train to Yakutsk with expedition reports, he was replaced by Khariton Laptev. Surprisingly, the names of Chelyuskin and Laptev were much more clearly reflected in the public consciousness than the name of their commander Pronchishchev. True, in the spring of 2018, the film "The First" will be released, which tells about the fate of the Pronchishchev spouses. The role of Vasily will be played by Yevgeny Tkachuk (Grigory Melekhov in The Quiet Don and Mishka Yaponchik in the series of the same name). Perhaps the name of Pronchishchev will still take its rightful place among other great explorers of the Arctic.

Fedor Soymonov. Map of the Caspian Sea. 1731

This man's life is begging for a movie screen. He, like Pronchishchev, participated in the Persian campaign of Peter I. He was also a midshipman. But his fate connected him not with the Arctic, but with the Caspian. Fedor Soymonov entered the history of Russia as the first Russian hydrographer.

Strange as it may seem, but along and across the Caspian Sea familiar to us today in the 18th century was still a continuous terra incognita. Yes, since ancient times dashing Volga people - ushkuiniki - went along it to Persia for princesses in order to throw them overboard into the oncoming wave, and of other other goods. It was called "going for zipuns." But it was all self-indulgence. Fyodor Soymonov was the first to map the Caspian Sea with all its bays, shoals and peninsulas on the map of the Russian Empire.

In Nerchinsk and Irkutsk, Soymonov organized the first navigational schools in Siberia, in which he personally taught. Then for six years he was the governor of Siberia

Also, under his leadership, the first detailed atlas of the Baltic Sea was published and the atlas of the White Sea was prepared for publication, but here the strange begins. Of course, this was due to undercover political games. In 1740, Soimonov was stripped of all ranks, flogged with a whip (!) and exiled to hard labor. Two years later, Elizabeth I returned him to the service, but left him in Siberia. In Nerchinsk and Irkutsk, Soymonov organized the first navigational schools in Siberia, in which he personally taught. Then for six years he was the governor of Siberia. At the age of 70, he was finally allowed to return to Moscow. He died at the age of 88 on his estate near Serpukhov.

Interesting fact. Soymonovsky passage in Moscow, not far from the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, is named after Soimonov's son, Mikhail, a remarkable person in his way, one of the organizers of mining in Russia.

Savva Loshkin. New Earth. Mid 18th century

G. A. Travnikov. Russian North

If our previous two heroes were sovereign people and made their travels on duty, then the Pomor Savva Loshkin, a native of the village of Olonets, acted only at his own peril and risk. He was the first person in the history of the development of the Russian North, who bypassed Novaya Zemlya from the north.

Loshkin is an almost mythological personality, but any self-respecting northern sailor knows his name, despite the fact that the only official source telling about his three-year journey is the story of Fedot Rakhmanin, recorded in 1788 by Vasily Krestinin, corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Even the years of Savva Loshkin's travel are not exactly known to us. Some researchers believe that this is the beginning of the 1760s, others - that the 1740s

Nikolay Chelobitchikov. Malacca, Canton. 1760-1768.

While some mastered the North, others moved south. Merchant Nikolai Chelobitchikov from the city of Trubchevsk, Oryol province in 1760-1768 made a completely unique journey through Southeast Asia, which, alas, remained unappreciated by his contemporaries. Most likely, he was the first Russian who visited the Malay Peninsula and reached by sea, and not by land, the Chinese Canton (now Guangzhou)

The merchant Chelobitchikov made his journey with a completely practical purpose and, it seems, did not attach any historical significance to it. He contracted for 300 rubles. go to Calcutta and collect a four thousandth debt from a Greek merchant stuck there

The merchant Chelobitchikov (although it would be more correct to call him a collector) made his journey for a completely practical purpose and, it seems, did not attach any historical significance to it. He contracted for 300 rubles. to go to Calcutta and collect a debt of four thousand from a Greek merchant stuck there, who owed this amount to his fellow countrymen. Passing through Constantinople, Baghdad and the Indian Ocean, he reached Calcutta. But it turned out that the debtor had already died, and Chelobitchikov had to return to his homeland in an incredibly roundabout way: through Malacca, which at that time was owned by the Dutch, the Chinese Canton and the English island of St. Helena (!) To London, and then to Lisbon and Paris. And, finally, to St. Petersburg, where I visited for the first time in my life.

This amazing journey of the Trubchev merchant became known relatively recently, when a petition was found in the Central State Archive, which he sent in 1770 to Catherine II, with a request to transfer him to the St. Petersburg merchant class. In it, he described his route in sufficient detail. Surprisingly, his report is absolutely devoid of any pathos. He describes his nine-year journey rather sparingly, as some kind of country walk. And he offers himself as a consultant on trade with Eastern countries.

Philip Efremov. Bukhara - Tibet - Kashmir - India. 1774-1782

The further fate of Chelobitchikov remains unclear (most likely, his message never reached the Empress), but the serviceman, non-commissioned officer Philip Efremov, who made a similar journey a decade later, was introduced to Catherine II and even elevated to her noble dignity.

The adventures of Philip Efremov began in July 1774, when he was taken prisoner by the Pugachevites. Fled, but was captured by the Kirghiz, who sold him into slavery to the Emir of Bukhara

The adventures of Philip Efremov began in July 1774, when he was taken prisoner by the Pugachevites. He fled, but was captured by the Kirghiz, who sold him into slavery to the Emir of Bukhara. Efremov was forced to convert to Islam and subjected to the most severe tortures, but he did not betray the Christian faith, and then the emir, admiring his courage, made him his centurion (yuz-bashi). For participation in several battles, he received a large allotment of land, but still dreamed of returning to his homeland. Having bought a fake passport, he fled again. All roads to the north were blocked, so he went south. Through Tibet and Kashmir, closed to Europeans, he ended up in India, and from there to London, where he met with the Russian consul, who introduced him directly to Catherine's eyes.

Later, Efremov served as a translator in the Asian Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in 1786 the first edition of his travel diary was published: “Russian non-commissioned officer Efremov, now a collegiate assessor, nine years of wandering and adventures in Bukhara, Khiva, Persia and India and returning from there through England to Russia, written by himself. At the end of the 18th century, the book became a bestseller and went through three editions, but by the middle of the 19th century it was almost forgotten, like its author. Now the notebook, which has passed half the world with Efremov, is kept in the manuscript department of the Pushkin House.

P.S. Soon many other travelers followed in the footsteps of Chelobitchikov and Efremov. The most famous of them are Gerasim Lebedev, the first Russian Indologist who founded the first European-style drama theater in India in the 1790s in Calcutta, the Armenian merchants Grigory and Danil Atanasov, and the Georgian nobleman Rafail Danibegashvili.

Dmitry Rzhannikov

And let's remember and, well, a little

Moscow Automobile and Highway State Technical University

By discipline: Culturology

Russian travelers of the 19th century

Made by Evstifeeva Anna

student of group 1bmo2

Checked Shorkova S.A.

Moscow 2013

Introduction

Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century

1 I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky

2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.

3 A.A. Baranov

Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century

1 G.I. Nevelskoy and E.V. Putyatin

2 N.M. Przhevalsky

3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay

Conclusion

Introduction

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the ideas of Russians about the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time realized an old dream: its ships entered the oceans.

Chapter 1. Travelers of the first half of the 19th century

.1 I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky

In 1803, at the direction of Alexander I, an expedition was undertaken on the ships Nadezhda and Neva to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. It was the first Russian round-the-world expedition that lasted 3 years. It was headed by Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern, the largest navigator and geographer of the 19th century.

During the voyage, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped for the first time. Many interesting observations were left by the participants of the trip not only about the Far East, but also about other areas through which they sailed. The commander of the Neva, Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky, discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans.

The results of the observations were presented in the report of the Academy of Sciences. They turned out to be so significant that I.F. Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis of the book published in the early 1920s. "Atlas of the South Seas". In 1845, Admiral Krusenstern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society. He brought up a whole galaxy of Russian navigators and explorers.

1.2 F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev.

One of the students and followers of Kruzenshtern was Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen. He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition.

In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on the sloops (single-masted ships) Vostok (which he commanded) and Mirny (commander Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev). The expedition plan was made by Kruzenshtern. Its main goal was "the acquisition of complete knowledge about our globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole."

On January 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called "the ice continent." After stopping in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands.

For 751 days of navigation, Russian sailors covered about 50 thousand km. The most important geographical discoveries were made, valuable collections, observational data on the waters of the World Ocean and ice sheets of a continent new to mankind were brought.

1.3 A.A. Baranov

Alexander Andreevich Baranov can hardly be attributed to the discoverers or travelers in the strict sense of these words. But he was a man who made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian America by our compatriots. Being a Kargopol merchant, he traded in Eastern Siberia, and from 1790 - in North-West America.

In search of new hunting areas, Baranov studied Kodiak Island and other territories in detail, searched for minerals, founded new Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary, and established exchanges with local residents. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia.

Baranov's activities were extremely difficult and dangerous. The constant raids of the Indians cost the Russian settlers not only a lot of money, but also their lives. In 1802 alone, more than 200 settlers were killed while trying to create a settlement on the island of Sitka.

Baranov's efforts were so successful that in 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of the Russian colonies in America. This high and dangerous post he held almost until his death.

In 1804, Baranov founded the Novoarkhangelsk fortress on the island of Sitka, and then Fort Ross. In 1815, he undertook an expedition to the Hawaiian Islands with the aim of annexing them to Russia. However, she did not bring good luck. Being already an elderly and sick man, Alexander Andreevich asked for his resignation three times. However, they were in no hurry to let such a person leave the service.

geographic Russian round-the-world expedition

Chapter 2. Travelers of the second half of the 19th century

The largest researcher of the Russian Far East in the middle of the XIX century. was Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky.

In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855), he managed, bypassing Sakhalin from the north, to discover a number of new, previously unknown territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. Here in 1850 he founded the Nikolaevsky post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelsky's travels were of great importance: for the first time it was proved that Sakhalin was not connected to the mainland at all, but was an island and the Tatar Strait was a strait, not a bay, as it was thought.

Evfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin in 1822-1825 traveled around the world and left a description of what he saw to posterity. In 1852-1855. during the expedition led by him on the frigate "Pallada" the islands of Rimsky-Korsakov were discovered. Putyatin became the first Russian who managed to visit Japan, which was closed to Europeans, and even signed an agreement there (1855).

The result of the expeditions of Nevelsky and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

The most important among these institutions was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845. It has become the center of geographical knowledge in Russia.

2.2 N.M. Przhevalsky

Przhevalsky dreamed of wanderings from an early age and stubbornly prepared for them. But the Crimean War broke out - he went as a private in the army. And then years of study at the Academy of the General Staff. However, a military career did not attract him at all. Staying at the Academy was marked for Przhevalsky only by compiling Military Statistical Review of the Amur Territory .

However, this work allowed him to become a member of the Geographical Society.

In early 1867, Przhevalsky submitted to the Society a plan for a major and risky expedition to Central Asia. However, the audacity of the young officer seemed excessive, and the matter was limited to his business trip to the Ussuri Territory with permission carry out any scientific research . But Przhevalsky met this decision with enthusiasm.

In this first trip, Przhevalsky compiled the most complete description of the Ussuri region and gained valuable expeditionary experience. Now they believed in him: there were no obstacles for traveling to Mongolia and the country of the Tanguts - Northern Tibet, which he dreamed about.

During the four years of the expedition (1870-1873), significant amendments were made to the geographical map.

In 1876, he again sets a course for Tibet. Przhevalsky was the first European to reach the mysterious Lobnor Lake, discover the previously unknown Altyndag Range and determine the exact border of the Tibetan Plateau, establishing that it begins 300 km north of what was previously thought. But this time he failed to penetrate deep into this country, almost unknown to Europeans.

And yet, three years later, the Russian explorer reached the coveted highlands. The absolute lack of exploration of this area attracted Przhevalsky, who sent here in the early 1880s. your expedition. It was his most fruitful journey, crowned with many discoveries. True, Przhevalsky did not succeed in discovering the source of the Huang He (it was found only quite recently), however, the Russian expedition studied in detail the watershed between the Yellow River - the Yellow River and the largest Blue River in China and Eurasia - the Yangtze. Previously unknown ridges were plotted on the map. Przhevalsky gave them names: Columbus Ridge, Moscow Ridge, Russian Ridge. He called one of the peaks of the latter the Kremlin. Subsequently, a ridge appeared in this mountain system, perpetuating the name of Przhevalsky himself.

In the course of all his expeditions, Przhevalsky, being a professional geographer, made discoveries that could bring fame to any zoologist or botanist. He described a wild horse (Przewalski's horse), a wild camel and a Tibetan bear, several new species of birds, fish and reptiles, hundreds of species of plants.

And he was on his way again. Tibet again beckoned him to itself. This time, Przhevalsky firmly decided to visit Lhasa.

But all plans collapsed. He was dying in his tent, barely starting the journey. Before his death, he asked his companions to bury him by all means on the shore of Issyk-Kul, in a marching expedition uniform ... .

November 1888 Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky died. His last request was granted.

2.3 N.N. Miklukho Maclay

Every culture, every tribe or people, every human being has the right to self-sufficiency. Interacting, communicating, they should proceed from mutual respect, not seeking to force their own rules, their way of life and not imposing their thoughts.

These principles were close and understandable to Nikolai Nikolayevich Miklukho-Maclay, who was brought up in an intelligent Russian family during the heyday of Russian culture, primarily literature, permeated with the ideas of freedom, humanism, goodness and the search for truth. Having studied biology and medicine in Germany, having made several scientific expeditions (he was an assistant to the famous biologist and ecologist E. Haeckel), he returned to Russia and then decided to go to New Guinea. K.M. Baer recommended that he observe people "without prejudice as to the number and distribution of human tribes and races"

Until the middle of the XIX century. New Guinea remained aloof from the economic interests of the European industrial powers. Perhaps it was influenced by the fact that no deposits of precious metals were found on it. It is also possible that the reason for this is the rumors about the local cannibal savages. In addition, lush tropical vegetation prevented the development of these territories. A more or less thorough study of New Guinea began in 1871-1872: Italian scientists Luigi Albertis and Odoardo Beccari explored the northwestern part of the island.

Miklouho-Maclay had to hurry to catch at least some of the Papuan tribes in their natural state. Therefore, he chose the practically unexplored southeastern coast of New Guinea, landed there in September 1871 and lived among the "savages" for more than a year, communicating with them, winning their respect and trust.

The first stay on the banks of Maclay.

On September 1871, the Vityaz anchored about 140 meters from the shore. Soon the Papuans appeared; Miklukho-Maclay, refusing to guard, with Ohlson and Boy landed on the shore and visited the village, the entire population of which fled into the jungle. The most daring was a Papuan named Tui (in the pronunciation recorded by D.D. Tumarkin in 1977 - Toya). It is Tui who will become the main intermediary of Miklouho-Maclay with the inhabitants of the coastal villages.

Nazimov warned that he would be able to stand for no more than a week, so Miklukho-Maclay, with the help of Tui, found Garagassi cape, where a hut for a scientist was built (size 7 ×14 feet), and in a hut belonging to Tui, they set up a cookery. At the insistence of the commander of the "Vityaz", site 70 ×70 m was mined; information about whether Miklukho-Maclay used mines contradicts each other and is unverifiable. Of the products, Nikolai Nikolayevich had two pounds of rice, Chilean beans, dried meat and a can of edible fat. Nazimov forced Miklukho-Maclay to take the team's daily allowance - that is, a daily supply of food for 300 people, but Nikolai Nikolayevich refused to take the supply free of charge. September 27 "Vityaz" left the bay.

The first month in New Guinea was quite tense. Miklukho-Maclay came to the conclusion that his visits disturbed the islanders too much and limited himself only to contacts with the natives who visited him at Cape Garagassi. Since he did not know the language and customs well, at first he limited himself to meteorological and zoobotanical research. Already on October 11, he was overwhelmed by the first attack of fever, and repeated attacks continued during the entire stay of the scientist in the Astrolabe Bay. The servants were constantly ill, especially Boy, who Miklouho-Maclay diagnosed with a "swelling of the lymphatic glands in the groin." The operation did not help, on December 13 the boy died. Miklouho-Maclay at the same time remembered the promise given to Professor Gegenbaur to obtain a preparation of the larynx of a black man with a tongue and all the muscles, which he prepared, despite the danger of the situation.

By January 1872, Miklouho-Maclay's authority among the local population had grown, and on January 11 he received an invitation to the village of Bongu for the first time. There was an exchange of gifts, but the wives and children of the New Guineans were still hidden from the scientist. In February 1872, Nikolai Nikolaevich managed to heal Tui from a serious wound (a tree fell on him, the wound on his head festered), after which the scientist was received in the village, Tui introduced him to his wife and children; the opinion of the European as an evil spirit was significantly shaken. The symbolic inclusion of the ethnographer in the local society took place on March 2 at a night ceremony, which was attended by men from three related villages - Gumbu, Gorendu and Bongu. An artistic description of the ceremony was left by Miklouho-Maclay himself in his diary. After that, the scientist could safely make long-distance excursions along the coast and even into the mountains. The language barrier created the greatest difficulty: by the end of his first stay in New Guinea, the scientist spoke about 350 words of the local Bongu language, and at least 15 languages ​​were spoken in the vicinity.

The explored territories, the shores of the Astrolabe Bay and part of the coast to the east of it to Cape Huon, Miklouho-Maclay called by his own name - “Miklukho-Maclay Coast”, defining its geographical boundaries as follows: from Cape Croazil in the west to Cape King William in the east, from the seashore in the northeast to the highest mountain range of Mana Boro-Boro in the southwest.

Conclusion

World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

Bibliography

1.Danilov A.A. History of Russia, XIX century. Grade 8: textbook. for general education institutions / A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina. - 10th ed. - M.: Enlightenment, 2009. - 287 p., L. ill., maps.

2.Zezina M.R. Koshman L.V. Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture. - M., 1990

Russian navigators, along with European ones, are the most famous pioneers who discovered new continents, sections of mountain ranges and vast water areas.

They became the discoverers of significant geographical objects, took the first steps in the development of hard-to-reach territories, and traveled around the world. So who are they - the conquerors of the seas, and what exactly did the world learn about thanks to them?

Afanasy Nikitin - the very first Russian traveler

Afanasy Nikitin is rightfully considered the first Russian traveler who managed to visit India and Persia (1468-1474, according to other sources 1466-1472). On the way back he visited Somalia, Turkey, Muscat. On the basis of his travels, Athanasius compiled the notes "Journey Beyond the Three Seas", which became popular and unique historical and literary aids. These notes became the first book in the history of Russia, made not in the format of a story about a pilgrimage, but describing the political, economic and cultural features of the territories.

Afanasy Nikitin

He was able to prove that even as a member of a poor peasant family, one can become a famous explorer and traveler. Streets, embankments in several Russian cities, a motor ship, a passenger train and an aircraft are named after him.

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Semyon Dezhnev, who founded the Anadyr prison

Cossack chieftain Semyon Dezhnev was an Arctic navigator who became the discoverer of a number of geographical objects. Wherever Semyon Ivanovich served, everywhere he sought to study the new and previously unknown. He was even able to cross the East Siberian Sea on a makeshift koch, going from Indigirka to Alazeya.

In 1643, as part of a detachment of explorers, Semyon Ivanovich discovered Kolyma, where he founded the city of Srednekolymsk with his associates. A year later, Semyon Dezhnev continued his expedition, walked along the Bering Strait (which did not yet have this name) and discovered the easternmost point of the mainland, later named Cape Dezhnev. An island, a peninsula, a bay, a village also bear his name.

Semyon Dezhnev

In 1648, Dezhnev set off again. His ship was wrecked in the waters located in the southern part of the Anadyr River. Having reached on skis, the sailors went up the river and stayed there for the winter. Subsequently, this place appeared on geographical maps and was called the Anadyr prison. As a result of the expedition, the traveler was able to make detailed descriptions, draw up a map of those places.

Vitus Jonassen Bering, who organized expeditions to Kamchatka

Two Kamchatka expeditions inscribed the names of Vitus Bering and his associate Alexei Chirikov in the history of marine discoveries. During the first trip, the navigators conducted research and were able to supplement the geographical atlas with objects located in Northeast Asia and on the Pacific coast of Kamchatka.

The discovery of the Kamchatka and Ozerny peninsulas, the bays of Kamchatsky, the Cross, the Karaginsky, the Bay of Conduct, the island of St. Lawrence are also the merit of Bering and Chirikov. At the same time, another strait was found and described, which later became known as the Bering Strait.

Vitus Bering

The second expedition was undertaken by them in order to find a way to North America and explore the Pacific Islands. On this journey, Bering and Chirikov founded the Peter and Paul prison. It got its name from the combined names of their ships ("Saint Peter" and "Saint Paul") and subsequently became the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

On the approach to the shores of America, the ships of like-minded people lost sight of each other, heavy fog affected. "Saint Peter", driven by Bering, sailed to the west coast of America, but got into a severe storm on the way back - the ship was thrown onto an island. The last minutes of Vitus Bering's life passed on it, and the island subsequently began to bear his name. Chirikov also reached America on his ship, but successfully completed his voyage, finding several islands of the Aleutian ridge on the way back.

Khariton and Dmitry Laptev and their “named” sea

Cousins ​​Khariton and Dmitry Laptev were like-minded and assistants to Vitus Bering. It was he who appointed Dmitry the commander of the Irkutsk ship, and Khariton led his double boat Yakutsk. They took part in the Great Northern Expedition, the purpose of which was to study and accurately describe and map the Russian shores of the ocean, from Yugorsky Shar to Kamchatka.

Each of the brothers made a significant contribution to the development of new territories. Dmitry became the first navigator to survey the coast from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Kolyma. He made detailed maps of these places, based on mathematical calculations and astronomical data.

Khariton and Dmitry Laptev

Khariton Laptev and his associates conducted research on the northernmost section of the coast of Siberia. It was he who determined the size and shape of the huge Taimyr Peninsula - he surveyed its eastern coast, and was able to identify the exact coordinates of the coastal islands. The expedition took place in difficult conditions - a large amount of ice, snowstorms, scurvy, ice captivity - the team of Khariton Laptev had to endure a lot. But they continued the work they had begun. On this expedition, Laptev's assistant Chelyuskin discovered the cape, which was later named after him.

Noting the great contribution of the Laptevs to the development of new territories, members of the Russian Geographical Society decided to name one of the largest seas in the Arctic after them. Also, the strait between the mainland and Bolshoi Lyakhovsky Island is named after Dmitry, and the western coast of Taimyr Island bears the name of Khariton.

Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky - the organizers of the first Russian circumnavigation of the world

Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky are the first Russian navigators to circumnavigate the world. Their expedition lasted three years (started in 1803 and ended in 1806). They set off with their teams on two ships, which bore the names "Nadezhda" and "Neva". Travelers passed through the Atlantic Ocean, entered the waters of the Pacific Ocean. On them, sailors sailed to the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka and Sakhalin.

Ivan KruzenshternThis journey allowed us to collect important information. Based on the data obtained by the navigators, a detailed map of the Pacific Ocean was compiled. Another important result of the first Russian round-the-world expedition was the data obtained about the flora and fauna of the Kuriles and Kamchatka, local residents, their customs and cultural traditions.

During their journey, the sailors crossed the equator and, according to maritime traditions, could not leave this event without a well-known ritual - a sailor dressed as Neptune greeted Krusenstern and asked why his ship arrived where the Russian flag had never been. To which he received the answer that they are here solely for the glory and development of national science.

Vasily Golovnin - the first navigator who was rescued from Japanese captivity

Russian navigator Vasily Golovnin led two round-the-world expeditions. In 1806, being in the rank of lieutenant, he received a new appointment and became the commander of the sloop "Diana". Interestingly, this is the only case in the history of the Russian fleet when a lieutenant was entrusted with the management of a ship.

The leadership set the goal of the round-the-world expedition to study the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, with special attention to that part of it that is within the native country. The path of "Diana" was not easy. The sloop passed the island of Tristan da Cunha, passed the Cape of Hope and entered the port, which belonged to the British. Here the ship was detained by the authorities. The British informed Golovnin about the outbreak of war between the two countries. The Russian ship was not declared captured, but the crew was not allowed to leave the bay either. After spending more than a year in this position, in mid-May 1809, the Diana, led by Golovnin, tried to escape, which the sailors succeeded in successfully - the ship arrived in Kamchatka.

Vasily Golovin The next important task Golovnin received in 1811 - he had to draw up descriptions of the Shantar and Kuril Islands, the shores of the Tatar Strait. During his journey, he was accused of not adhering to the principles of sakoku and was captured by the Japanese for more than 2 years. It was possible to rescue the crew from captivity only thanks to the good relations of one of the Russian naval officers and an influential Japanese merchant, who was able to convince his government of the harmless intentions of the Russians. It is worth noting that no one in history has ever returned from Japanese captivity before.

In 1817-1819, Vasily Mikhailovich made another round-the-world trip on the Kamchatka ship specially built for this.

Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev - discoverers of Antarctica

Captain of the second rank Thaddeus Bellingshausen was determined to find the truth about the existence of the sixth continent. In 1819, he went to the open sea, carefully preparing two sloops - Mirny and Vostok. The latter was commanded by his associate Mikhail Lazarev. The first round-the-world Antarctic expedition set itself other tasks. In addition to finding irrefutable facts confirming or refuting the existence of Antarctica, the travelers were going to explore the waters of three oceans - the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian.

Thaddeus Bellingshausen The results of this expedition exceeded all expectations. During the 751 days that it lasted, Bellingshausen and Lazarev were able to make several significant geographical discoveries. Of course, the most important of them is the existence of Antarctica, this historical event took place on January 28, 1820. Also during the trip, about two dozen islands were found and mapped, sketches were created with views of Antarctica, images of representatives of the Antarctic fauna.

Mikhail Lazarev

Interestingly, attempts to discover Antarctica were made more than once, but none of them were successful. European navigators believed that either it did not exist, or it was located in places that simply could not be reached by sea. But the Russian travelers had enough perseverance and determination, so the names of Bellingshausen and Lazarev are included in the lists of the world's greatest navigators.

Yakov Sannikov

Yakov Sannikov (circa 1780, Ust-Yansk, Russian Empire - after 1811) - Russian merchant from Yakutsk, miner of arctic fox, mammoth tusk and explorer of the New Siberian Islands.
Known as the discoverer of the ghost island "Sannikov Land", which he saw from the New Siberian Islands. He discovered and described the islands of Stolbovoy (1800) and Faddeevsky (1805).
In 1808-1810, he participated in the expedition of the exiled Riga Swede M. M. Gedenstrom. In 1810 he crossed the island of New Siberia, in 1811 he bypassed the island of Faddeevsky.
Sannikov expressed an opinion about the existence to the north of the New Siberian Islands, in particular from Kotelny Island, of a vast land called "Sannikov Land".

After 1811, traces of Yakov Sannikov are lost. Neither further occupation nor the year of death are known. In 1935, pilot Gratsiansky, who was flying in the lower reaches of the Lena River, discovered a tombstone with the inscription "Yakov Sannikov" near Kyusyur. The strait is named after him, along which a section of the Northern Sea Route passes today. It was opened in 1773 by the Yakut industrialist Ivan Lyakhov. Initially, the strait was named after the expedition doctor E.V. Tolya V.N. Katina-Yartseva F.A. Mathisen. The current name is given to K.A. Vollosovich on his map, and in 1935 approved by the government of the USSR.

Grigory Shelikhov

Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov (Shelekhov; 1747, Rylsk - July 20, 1795, Irkutsk) - Russian explorer, navigator, industrialist and merchant from the Shelekhov family, from 1775 engaged in the arrangement of commercial merchant shipping between the Kuril and Aleutian island ridges. In 1783-1786 he led an expedition to Russian America, during which the first Russian settlements in North America were founded. He organized several trading and fishing companies, including those in Kamchatka. Grigory Ivanovich explored new lands for the Russian Empire, was the initiator of the Russian-American Company. Founder of the North East Company.

The bay was named after him. Shelikhov Bay (Kamchatka region, Russia) is located between the Asian coast and the base of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Refers to the water area of ​​the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

Ferdinand Wrangel

Wrangel showed himself from the best side, and he, tested in a difficult circumnavigation, is assigned to lead an expedition to the extreme north-east of Siberia, to the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma, in order to map the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to the Bering Strait, and in addition to test the hypothesis about the existence of an undiscovered land connecting Asia with America.
Wrangel spends three years in the ice and tundra with his companions, among whom his main assistant was Fedor Matyushkin, a lyceum comrade A.S. Pushkin.
In between trips to the North, under the leadership of Wrangel and Matyushkin, a topographic survey of the vast coast was made, covering 35 degrees in longitude. On the territory of the recently white spot, 115 astronomical points were identified. For the first time, studies of the influence of climate on the existence and development of sea ice were carried out, and the first meteorological station in this region was organized in Nizhnekolymsk. Thanks to the meteorological observations of this station, it was established that in the interfluve of the Yana and Kolyma there is a "pole of cold" of the Northern Hemisphere.
Ferdinand Wrangel described the expedition and its scientific results in detail in a book that was first published in 1839 and was a huge success. The famous Swedish polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld called it "one of the masterpieces among the writings on the Arctic".

The expedition in the Chukotka-Kolyma Territory put Wrangel on a par with the largest explorers of the harsh Arctic. Subsequently, becoming one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society, he thought over the project of an expedition to the North Pole. He proposes to go to the Pole on a ship, which should be wintering off the northern coast of Greenland, to prepare food warehouses along the route of the polar party in the fall, and in March people go exactly in the direction of the meridian on ten sleds with dogs. Interestingly, the plan to reach the pole, drawn up by Robert Peary, who entered the pole 64 years later, repeated the old Wrangel project in the smallest detail. An island in the Arctic Ocean, a mountain and a cape in Alaska are named after Wrangel. Having learned about the sale of Alaska by the Russian government in 1867, Ferdinand Petrovich reacted very negatively to this.

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